Aksu Basin

In the Middle Miocene, coral reefs dotted the coast in the Aksu Basin. Porites, pictured here, was one of the predominant genera.

By the Early Miocene, a "right-lateral transform fault plate boundary" had formed between the Cyprus Trench and the Isparta Angle.[4]^: 16 This led to the creation of "a hybrid, terrestrial-shallow marine accommodation space" on the eastern side of the Isparta Angle, where sediments from the Antalya Complex further east were deposited.[4]^: 16

In the Middle Miocene (c. 16-11 MYA), the Aksu Basin was formed as a graben cutting through the Karabayir platform.[3]^: 137–8 Meanwhile, the surrounding continental areas were being pushed upward; erosion from these areas provided a lot of sediment that was poured into the emerging Aksu Basin.[3]^: 137–8 According to Kaya, this was especially the case with the rapidly uplifting Antalya Complex to the east; it "provided the topographic gradient and gravitational potential energy for the necessary fluvial erosion and transport for sediment supply".[4]^: 16 Poisson et al. instead highlight the basin's northern and western margins, where a series of fan deltas at prehistoric river mouths left thick sediment deposits – for example, the present-day Kapıkaya and Kargı fan deltas.[3]^: 138

The Aksu and Karpuzçay Formations were deposited during this period in what Kaya describes as "fluvial, deltaic to beach environments".[4]^: 16 Coral reefs fringed the coastline.[3]^: 138 These reefs lay on a "warm, well-aerated shallow marine shelf" in the photic zone.[2]^: 38 The low species diversity – primarily colonies of Porites and Tarbaellastraea – may indicate a "stressed" environment.[2]^: 38 The shore was "medium-high wave energy-dominated", and the climate was temperate to subtropical.[2]^: 45 The presence of coral fossils among the fan delta deposits is likely from periods when sudden sea level increase left the deltas underwater.[2]^: 45 Traces of coral reefs at Kargı and Sütçüler have been dated to Late Tortonian times.[3]^: 138

Around 5.6 MYA, the Mediterranean region was hit by the Messinian salinity crisis.[2]^: 42 Sea levels dropped tremendously, and there was rapid erosion and desiccation.[2]^: 42–4 Growth of the fan deltas stopped as the receding coastline left the entire Aksu Basin on land.[2]^: 42–4 Deep gorges were carved in the areas that were now exposed as dry land.[2]^: 44 One of them, now a deep undersea canyon in the Gulf of Antalya, is still traceable in front of the present day Düden and Karaman river mouths.[3]^: 142 A similar canyon likely existed on the Aksu, but it has since been buried by Quaternary sedimentation on the marine shelf.[3]^: 142

Poisson et al. reconstructed the course of the Aksu River around the end of the Messinian (c. 5.3 MYA) this way: the river flowed through the Eskiköy Canyon, then "crossed the Antalya alluvial plain before joining the Antalya abyssal plain, through the actively cutting Antalya canyon".[3]^: 143

Poisson et al. also argued that the Gebiz Limestone was formed during the Messinian, implying that there was still at least a pocket of sea in the Aksu Basin even while the sea retreated.[3]^: 140–1 They characterize this environment as "very shallow marine", with coral reefs, which then gradually became more restricted as it gave way to land and eventually dried up completely.[3]^: 141 This characterization is disputed – Üner et al. instead describe the Gebiz Limestone as being deposited after sea levels rose again;[2]^: 44 Kaya attributes the Gebiz Limestone to the "latest Miocene-early Pliocene", describing it as being deposited by a NW-SE-oriented lake that formed during this period.[4]^: 16–7

According to Kaya's interpretation, the Aksu Basin was a "fluvial, fluvial-delta, beach setting" during the Middle Miocene (c. 16-11 MYA), then "a lacustrine and lagoon environment" by the end of the Miocene (i.e. c. 5.3 MYA).[4]^: 10 Then, during the early Pliocene (c. 5.3-3.6 MYA), there was a relatively brief (at least geologically speaking) period of tidal flat and very shallow marine conditions.[4]^: 10 Later, there was a "return to entirely terrestrial conditions", and deposition by the ancient Aksu River formed the Belkis Conglomerate during the Pleistocene period.[4]^: 10

Sea levels rose again in the early Pliocene, during the Zanclean period (c. 5.3-3.6 MYA).[2]^: 44 The southern part of the Aksu Basin was submerged, while the northern part remained dry land.[2]^: 35, 44 The Messinian canyons became filled in by new deposition.[2]^: 44 The Eskiköy canyon was at first completely submerged, as fossils of nannoplankton and planktonic foraminifera found in marl deposits suggest a shallow, "open-marine" environment.[3]^: 143 It then became "completely filled" by these marl deposits, then deltaic conglomerate deposits, and finally lacustrine marl deposits.[3]^: 143

Meanwhile, by the latest Miocene/early Pliocene, continued tectonic activity had caused the Aksu Basin (specifically the present-day northern part, the Aksu-Karpuzçay sub-basin) to become uplifted and tilted towards the south.[4]^: 16 Deposition was now happening further south, forming the Yenimahalle-Çalkaya sub-basin.[4]^: 16 Sediment was now coming from the Bey Dağları platform to the west, which had been uplifted in the meantime.[4]^: 16

Rising sea levels had left the Yenimahalle-Çalkaya sub-basin underwater,[4]^: 17 leading to what Üner et al. describe as a shallow marine shelf environment.[2]^: 44[note 2] Üner et al. attribute the alluvial fan-delta of the Eskiköy Formation, and the "shallow marine siltstone-marl alternations" of the Yenimahalle Formation to this period.[2]^: 44 According to Kaya, the Yenimahalle and Çalkaya Formations were deposited during this period.[4]^: 17

In the Late Pliocene (c. 3.6-2.6 MYA), sea levels dropped and the southern Aksu Basin once again became dry land.[2]^: 44 On the western side of the basin, the Antalya Fault spawned cold springs, which produced the Antalya tufa and travertine deposits.[4]^: 17

During the Quaternary period, the Aksu River cut a new gorge – not in the same place as the Eskiköy canyon; the river's course had changed in the meantime.[3]^: 144

Since in the early-mid Pleistocene, Earth has experienced an alternating series of glacial and interglacial periods, which "superimposed their effects" on the ongoing geological processes in the region.[1]^: 383 Anatolia has been experiencing relative uplift, while the Aksu Basin has been experiencing relative subsidence to form an extensional graben.[1]^: 383 A fluctuating climate affected the river systems, and aggradation in the central part of the basin created fluvial terraces.[1]^: 383 Terra rossa-type soils formed on top of Mesozoic limestone and were redeposited into channels during flash floods.[1]^: 383 At the beginning of the middle Pleistocene, global fluctuations in sea level increased, and a marine incursion may have eroded the lower part of the basin, although no marine sediments have been found in this area.[1]^: 383, 5 Also around the mid-Pleistocene, a small fan was deposited at the mouth of the Karaman River.[1]^: 383, 5 Also during this time, the most recent layer of the Aksu Basin was formed: the Belkis Conglomerate, in the middle Pleistocene, by fluvial terraces.[4]^: 17

At the present day, tectonic activity in the Aksu Basin is minimal, and there is also relatively little sedimentary deposition.[1]^: 385 Instead, erosion is the primary activity, such as cave systems and sinkholes forming in the Antalya Tufa.[1]^: 385 The Aksu River also continues to form fluvial terraces along its course.[1]^: 385

According to Ersin Kaya, the Aksu Formation is the oldest layer of the Aksu Basin.[4]^: 5[note 3] It is mixed with the similar-aged Karpuzçay Formation.[2]^: 35 Based on fossil records, the Aksu Formation has been dated to the Langhian through Tortonian periods (i.e. c. 16-7 MYA).[4]^: 6 Its maximum thickness is about 1200 m.[4]^: 5 The Aksu Formation's type localities are in the northeast and northwest parts of the Aksu Basin.[4]^: 6 The formation's composition is somewhat varied in different places.[4]^: 6 The western part of the Aksu Formation consists of "poorly sorted conglomerate and conglomeratic sandstone... composed of rounded clasts of fine-grained, beige micritic Jurassic limestone and Triassic light gray limestone and yellow sandstone".[4]^: 6 In the east, the formation contains "abundant clasts of red and green radiolarites, Triassic hallobia-bearing sandstone, and ophiolitic rocks (serpentinite, dolerite, basaltic volcanic rocks".[4]^: 6 Near the eastern edge of the basin, the Aksu Formation directly overlies the Triassic basement rocks along an angular unconformity.[4]^: 5

Less commonly, blocks of reefal limestone are present.[4]^: 6 These blocks contain fossils of the corals Stylophora, Helliastraea, Plesiastraea, Favia, Tarbellastraea, and Porites.[4]^: 6

With a maximum thickness of 1500 m, the Karpuzçay Formation is the single most extensive formation in the Aksu Basin.[4]^: 6 It is approximately equal in date to the Aksu Formation, also being dated to the Langhian and Tortonian based on fossils.[4]^: 6–7 It is either slightly older[2]^: 35 or slightly younger[4]^: 6 than the Aksu Formation; in either case, the two are mixed together in many places.[2]^: 35

The Karpuzçay Formation mostly comprises alternating layers of conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone.[4]^: 6 The conglomerate layers have clasts made of chert, serpentinite, and various types of limestone.[4]^: 6 Sandstones vary in color from grey to green to dirty yellow.[4]^: 6 They have cross-bedding, cross-lamination, and pronounced graded bedding.[4]^: 6 Layers of tuffaceous sandstone are commonly mixed in with conglomerate or conglomeratic sandstone layers.[4]^: 6 Mudstone layers are usually laminated and contain concretions ranging from 15 to 20 mm.[4]^: 6

The Gebiz Limestone unconformably overlies the Karpuzçay Formation at its type locality near the town of Gebiz in the southeastern part of the Aksu Basin.[4]^: 7 In some places along the basin's eastern edge, it is instead faulted against the Triassic-Jurassic rocks of the Antalya Complex.[4]^: 7 More within the basin, it is faulted against younger basement strata in some places.[4]^: 7 It is dated to the Upper Miocene, although the exact time period is disputed.[4]^: 7 It is variously dated to the Messinian or Tortonian.[4]^: 7 Its maximum thickness is about 40 m, in its type locality near the town of Gebiz.[4]^: 7 The Gebiz Limestone consists mainly of bioclastic limestone, marl, claystone, and mudstone.[4]^: 7 In some areas, there are reefal limestone deposits.[4]^: 7

The largest continuous exposed stretch of the Gebiz Limestone lies along the southeastern edge of the Aksu Basin; it runs parallel to the edge of the basin.[4]^: 7

The main exposed outcroppings of the Eskiköy Formation are found in the middle part of the basin.[4]^: 7 Here, it generally sits on top of the Aksu and Karpuzçay Formations, separated from them by an unconformity.[4]^: 7 In some places, it instead lies on top of Triassic-Jurassic recrystallized limestones belonging to the Antalya Complex, either separated from them by an unconformity or faulted against them.[4]^: 7

The Eskiköy Formation primarily consists of sandy conglomerate and sandstone, with interspersed layers of mudstone.[4]^: 7 The conglomerate is "poorly sorted with mostly rounded pebbles and clasts of Jurassic micritic limestone, and Triassic chert and basaltic rocks".[4]^: 7 The formation's maximum depth is estimated at 300 m.[4]^: 7

Akay et al. interpreted the Eskiköy Formation as a lateral equivalent of the Gebiz Limestone, meaning that they date from the same time.[4]^: 8

Fossils found in the Eskiköy Formation's marl include several species of planktonic foraminifera: Orbulina, Biorbulina, Globigerinoides (multiple species: trilobus, obliquus extremus, obliquus s.s., bollii, emeisi, and aperture), and Globigerinita incrusta.[4]^: 8 Based on these planktonic foraminifera fossils, Poisson et al. dated the formation to the Upper Miocene, which is consistent with Akay et al.'s interpretation.[4]^: 8

The Yenimahalle Formation is best exposed in two areas: around Yenimahalle in the southwestern part of the Aksu River valley, and around Gebiz in the east.[4]^: 8 It lies conformably on top of the Gebiz and Eskiköy Formations; i.e. they are not separated by an unconformity.[4]^: 8 The Çalkaya Formation sits on top of it.[4]^: 8 Around the village of Dorumlar, the Yenimahalle Formation is overlain by the Belkis Conglomerate, with an unconformity between them.[4]^: 8 The total thickness of the Yenimahalle Formation is about 250 m.[4]^: 8 Evidence of a prehistoric river delta from this stage has also been detected offshore based on seismic lines.[1]^: 374

The Yenimahalle Formation is made up of "blue-grey siltstone with embedded sandstone and graded gravelstone".[4]^: 8 There is also conglomerate included in the formation's upper layers.[4]^: 8 Characteristic features of the Yenimahalle formation include "low-angle cross-bedding and lamination, trough cross-bedding, ripple lamination, fining upwards sand channels, and gravel/conglomerate lenses".[4]^: 8 In some places, sandstone concretions are common.[4]^: 8 Tuff deposits can also be found in some places, caused by "local, small phreatomagmatic eruptions".[1]^: 374

The presence of "Margaritae and Punctulate zones" in lower parts of the formation near Gebiz indicate that the formation can be dated to the Lower Pliocene.[4]^: 8 A number of fossilized bivalve and gastropod mollusk shells have been found in the Yenimahalle Formation, including Acanthocardia, Ostrea, Cerastoderma edule, Paphia, Dentalis, Gibbula, Fusinus, and Pectens.[4]^: 8

Glover and Robertson interpreted the Yenimahalle Formation as "a fine-grained shallow-marine shelf deposit".[1]^: 374 There do not seem to have been many coarse-grained deposits in this area, leading them to conclude that the river system depositing sediment here had a low gradient and relatively little bedload compared to total load.[1]^: 374 Based on foraminifera fossils, they estimated that the Yenimahalle Formation was deposited with a water depth under 150 meters, then gradually getting shallower to a depth of under 50 meters "for a significant period".[1]^: 374

The Çalkaya Formation rests on top of the Yenimahalle Formation.[4]^: 9 Glover and Robertson interpreted the Çalkaya Formation as "a combination of the Pliocene Alakilise and Eskiköy Formations", but Kaya interpreted it as a separate formation since there is "no observable direct contact between them".[4]^: 9

The Çalkaya Formation consists of marly siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate.[4]^: 9Its lower part is similar in composition to the upper part of the Yenimahalle Formation.[4]^: 9 Siltstone layers in the Çalkaya Formation are interspersed with coal seams measuring 25–30 cm in thickness.[4]^: 9

Common features of the Çalkaya Formation include "low-angle cross-bedding, through cross-bedding, ripple lamination, and hummocky cross-stratification.[4]^: 9 In some places, the sediment's grain size increases significantly as it goes towards upper layers, getting coarser and eventually giving way to conglomerate.[4]^: 9

The Çalkaya Formation's sandstone deposits are similar in composition to those of the Yenimahalle Formation.[1]^: 370 Glover and Robertson interpreted the Çalkaya sandstone as "shallow marine in origin, subject to occasional storm activity".[1]^: 371 Throughout the Çalkaya Formation, there are small conglomerate deposits.[1]^: 371 Towards the south, around Çalkaya itself, there are "much larger conglomerate bodies" that "crop out as topographic ridges".[1]^: 371 Like the sandstone, the Çalkaya conglomerates are also "marine in origin, as indicated by the evidence of pebbles bored by sponges and marine bivalves".[1]^: 371 Some fossils of barnacles and bivalves attached to pebbles and marine shells are found.[1]^: 371

The "pebble segregation and low lenticularlity" in the Çalkaya Formation's conglomerate indicates that it was well-worked by waves.[1]^: 371 In some places, "small lenticular pebble bodies within well-sorted sands" may represent what Glover and Robertson described as "lag concentrations within the lower shoreface zone, possibly a result of accumulation in hollows, or as storm deposits".[1]^: 371 Some "channelized" conglomerates also contain evidence of prehistoric sandbars.[1]^: 371

Paleosols (prehistoric soils) are fairly common in the formation.[1]^: 371 These are typically 1 or 2 meters thick and are "pale, brown Mediterranean-type soils".[1]^: 371

Throughout the formation, there are thin layers of white, carbonate-rich claystone (less than 1 meter thick).[1]^: 371 According to Glover and Robertson, these claystones were deposited "from hypersaline waters in undisturbed isolated, evaporative lagoons and pools".[1]^: 371

Fossils found in the Çalkaya Formation are basically the same as those found in the Yenimahalle Formation.[1]^: 370 In general, gastropod and bivalve fossils in the Çalkaya Formation are larger than their equivalents in the upper Yenimahalle Formation.[1]^: 370–1 In some places, "exceptionally large" fossils of the gastropod Murex have been found.[1]^: 370 Other fossils found in the Çalkaya include foraminifera, ostracods, and "abundant" bivalve and gastropod mollusks.[4]^: 9 The Çalkaya Formation has been dated to the Pliocene or Upper Pliocene.[4]^: 9

In some places, the fossil assemblage consists entirely of salinity-tolerant species, such as Cerastoderma edule or thin-shelled oysters, which Glover and Robertson interpreted as "suggestive of a brackish-water environment".[1]^: 371

In the period after the Yenimahalle Formation was deposited, there was a rapid retreat in the coastline.[1]^: 375 The coarse-grained Çalkaya Formation was then deposited at the Aksu River's delta.[1]^: 375 A small alluvial fan developed at the Aksu River's emergence point[note 4] – which appears to have stayed in basically the same place since at least the Mid-Miocene, since this alluvial fan cuts into fanglomerate from the earlier Aksu Formation.[1]^: 375 Further south, the fan deposits gradually transitions into a sedimentary plain.[1]^: 375 A braided stream traversed this plain, eroding the underlying marine sediments of the Yenimahalle Formation.[1]^: 375 This alluvial plain does not appear to have grown towards the south over time, indicating that "the fluvial regression was sufficiently rapid that the river system was unable to keep pace with a retreating shoreline."[1]^: 375

Instead, most of the southern basin area was covered by "a sandy, wave-influenced, delta-top environment", with the offshore waters having a very gentle slope and a lot of sandbars.[1]^: 375 The larger conglomerate bodies now found in the Çalkaya Formation may have been sandbars running parallel to the coast, possibly including "mouth bars along a wave-influenced fluvial delta distributary front".[1]^: 375

The southwestern boundary of the Aksu Basin is marked by a 30 km by 40 km area of tufa and travertine deposits.[4]^: 9–10 This area includes the city of Antalya as well as an undersea portion submerged beneath the Gulf of Antalya.[4]^: 9 The Antalya Tufa "crops out as a series of major terraces that dominate the present-day landscape".[1]^: 375

The deposits get progressively thicker towards the west — from 30 m thick in the east to 250 m thick in the west.[4]^: 9 No absolute age is given for these deposits, but they lie conformably on top of the Çalkaya Formation.[4]^: 9 Two sets of "conjugate oblique-slip faults" run northwest–southeast and northeast–southwest along the length of the entire formation.[4]^: 9

The lowermost (oldest) tufa deposits are made of "clay-rich microcrystalline carbonates, rich in gastropods".[1]^: 376 In areas where the deposit directly abuts the Mesozoic basement, particularly on the west, there are clasts of peridotite.[1]^: 376 These deposits "grade upward into pure microcrystalline tufa, with regular interbedded carbonate-rich paleosols", which predominates for 10 m.[1]^: 376 Above that, the composition becomes more varied.[1]^: 376 Incised channels contain brecciated tufa that was deposited in shallow-water and marsh environments.[1]^: 376 Finally, the uppermost 10 m "consists almost entirely of phytoclast tufa".[1]^: 376

The common alder (Alnus glutinosa) grew in the Aksu Basin when the Antalya Tufa was being deposited, but is no longer native to the area.

The Antalya Tufa was formed by cold springs in the early Pleistocene.[4]^: 17 This deposition happened "after extensional faulting had largely ceased within the main Aksu Basin".[1]^: 385 Some depositional features about the Antalya Tufa, such as the lack of detrital material, indicate that the waters originated from springs instead of as run off from the surrounding mountains.[1]^: 376 In addition, "The location of the palaeo-Aksu River with its coarse sediment input might explain why tufa was not deposited further east".[1]^: 383

Extensive karst systems supplied large volumes of water that had been supersaturated with carbonates, from the carbonate geology in the nearby Taurus Mountains.[1]^: 375 These waters came from lakes further north (as much as 100 km away), as well as from a now-dry polje system further south at Kestel.[1]^: 375 A cluster of springs at Kırkgöz ("forty springs"), in the northwestern part of the Aksu Basin, was one of the main sources where these carbonated waters came to the surface, but other springs no doubt also existed.[1]^: 375

At this time, the Aksu plain would have been dominated by lakes and wetlands, with water depths ranging from centimeters to meters.[1]^: 376 In some local depressions, water may have been up to 20 m deep.[1]^: 376 Various small rivers and streams, no more than about 10 m wide, meandered across a relatively flat plain, "constantly reworking friable carbonate deposits through which they passed".[1]^: 376

At first, tufa deposition was probably restricted to small lakes, such as near Kırkgöz.[1]^: 376 On the basin's eastern margin, deposition was primarily algal, "perhaps reflecting the presence of a localized shallow 'lagoon' in close proximity to source waters".[1]^: 376 Eventually, this deposition gradually filled up any pre-existing depressions and began happening in a broader area.[1]^: 376 This was the main phase of tufa deposition.[1]^: 376 In later periods, the overlying phytoclast and phytotherm deposits (which now form the uppermost deposits) were formed at a time "when spring-water supply was reduced, probably during a time of drier climate".[1]^: 376

Deposition of the Antalya Tufa may have all taken place during one climactic period.[1]^: 376 Preserved plants – such as Lonicera, Viburnum, and Alnus glutinosa – "would have thrived in a climate that was cooler and damper than at present".[1]^: 376 In particular, the presence of Alnus glutinosa (the common alder) confirms that the tufa is not recent in date, since this tree is no longer extant in the region.[1]^: 376 The presence of another tree – Parrotia persica, or the Persian ironwood – also suggests that most of the deposition had occurred before the onset of the Quaternary glaciation.[1]^: 376

Significant tufa deposition had probably ended by the mid-Pleistocene.[1]^: 376 The glacial periods that began afterwards were too cold and wet for extensive tufa formation, while the interglacial periods were too arid.[1]^: 376

Since then, various processes have continued to modify the Antalya Tufa, even though the main deposition has stopped.[1]^: 376 Erosion has formed "well developed terracing of the Antalya plain", and continued deposition on these terraces still continues, "producing a thin veneer of slope pools, waterfall deposits, and terrace mound deposits in localized areas".[1]^: 376 This more recent deposition is probably the reason why some radiometric dating attempts "has yielded anomalously young ages" for the Antalya tufa.[1]^: 376

Today, tufa deposition is minimal, even though there is still a supply of carbonate-supersatured water at Kırkgöz and other springs.[1]^: 376 Minor deposition continues at waterfalls and small streams, and "fine carbonates also precipitate at source springs and areas of ephemeral water supply, where algal mats remain after evaporation of shallow water."[1]^: 376

Throughout the Antalya Tufa, there are small pockets of bright red terra rossa paleosols that were redeposited here in ancient times.[1]^: 377 They are mostly found in steep-sided, U-shaped channels, often spaced closely together (some 5 m apart).[1]^: 377–8 These channels are mostly cut into Pleistocene fluvial conglomerates, but in some localized areas there are some cut into sedimentary deposits.[1]^: 378 Originally, these channels "were apparently cut and filled by catastrophic events, probably flash floods".[1]^: 378

Glover and Robertson note that the terra rossa paleosols found in the Antalya Tufa are not technically "ideal terra rossa" - they are "too depleted in carbonate" and "enriched in foreign materials" to fit the technical definition.[1]^: 378 Regardless, this type of soil typically forms on top of limestone, in areas with a hot and dry summer climate.[1]^: 377–8

The ancient city of Aspendos was built on, and out of, the Belkis Conglomerate.

The youngest unit in the Aksu Basin is the Belkis Conglomerate, which only has visible outcroppings in the basin's southern part, in the Yenimahalle-Çalkaya sub-basin.[4]^: 10 These outcroppings consist of fluvial terraces along the Aksu River, fairly close to its present-day course.[1]^{: 369, 77} These terraces are marked by steep channels filled in with "redeposited terra rossa-type paleosols" (i.e. prehistoric soils).[1]^: 369 The ancient city of Aspendos was built on top of the Belkis Conglomerate, and its stone structures were originally quarried from here.[4]^: 10

In composition, the Belkis Conglomerate is similar to the conglomerate portions of the Yenimahalle Formation.[4]^: 10 It is "highly heterogenous and composed mainly of clasts of Cretaceous limestone, serpentinite, and chert in a poorly sorted sandstone-siltstone matrix".[4]^: 10 The clasts are typically well-rounded and about 1-5 cm in size.[1]^: 377 They originally formed part of the Antalya Complex.[1]^: 377 Below the Belkis Conglomerate, an unconformity separates it from the Yenimahalle and Karpuzçay Formations.[4]^: 10

The Belkis Conglomerate was formed during the middle Pleistocene, by "deposition in fluvial floodplains and channels along the ancestral Aksu River, together with regional uplift".[4]^: 10, 17 The channels were formed by river incision and aggradation (soil deposition leading to increased elevation of land).[1]^: 369 They are now filled with prehistoric soils that were originally formed from the tufa formations and limestone basement rocks and redeposited here by the ancestral Aksu River during changes in its course, possibly during flash floods.[1]^: 369

The Eskiköy canyon, about 50 km north of Antalya, is from the pre-Pliocene.[3]^: 142 The canyon had its origins in a "faulted corridor" that the ancient Aksu River cut through.[3]^: 142 In the period preceding the Messinian salinity crisis, when sea levels felling, there was a period of erosion where the river "buried" the canyon.[3]^: 142 It is filled with "Early Pliocene fluvio-marine deposits".[3]^: 142

Located on the west side of the central part of the basin, the Karadağ fan delta (also called the Karadağ Conglomerates) dates from the Serravallian and Tortonian periods and is composed of "sandstones and gravels of limestones and ophiolitic rocks".[2]^: 35 The sources of these deposits are the Bey Dağları platform carbonates and the Antalya Nappes; for example, there are Upper Cretaceous Globotruncata fossils present in the fan delta.[2]^: 35 The gravels are "medium to poorly sorted", typically range from 3 to 8 cm in size, and are embedded in a "granule/coarse sand matrix".[2]^: 35 The base of the Karadağ fan delta is not visible because of tectonic activity since its formation.[2]^: 35 The overall thickness of the fan delta is about 750 m.[2]^: 35

The Kargı fan delta is located on the Aksu Basin's western side.[2]^: 36 It is composed of "NE-dipping thick conglomerates intercalated with thin mudstones with a total thickness of 185 m".[2]^: 36 Semi-rounded pebbles of limestone and ophiolite, generally ranging between 3 and 5 cm in size, are embedded in a "granule/coarse sandy matrix".[2]^: 36 Deposits in the Kargı fan delta contain "isolated piles of patch reefs" dating from the Tortonian period, primarily consisting of "columnar-shaped, thick-bedded, vertically growing Porites lobatosepta and Tarbellastraea siliciae colonies".[2]^: 38 In some places, there are "outsized blocks" of rock representing rock fall or rock slides, with the reef deposits underneath getting crushed in the process.[2]^: 38

Like the Karadağ fan delta, the Kargı fan delta was fed by the Bey Dağlari platform carbonates and the Antalya Nappes.[2]^: 41 Its growth mainly occurred in a north-northeast direction.[2]^: 41

According to Üner et al., the Kargı fan delta was probably formed as a "shallow braided stream and overbank deposit that developed on a medial alluvial fan".[2]^: 38 They write that, based on the "upper succession with patch reefs", the cause of the fan delta's formation was "a sharp transgression over the alluvial fan".[2]^: 38

Among foraminifera species in the Kargı area: planktic ones like Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, Globigerinoides tenellus, Globigerinoides obliquus obliquus, and Globoturborotalita rubescens; as well as the benthic ones Bulimina marginata and Saidovina karreriana.[6]

The Kapıkaya, Kozan, and Bucak fan deltas were all deposited approximately during the Langhian through Messinian periods.[2]^: 42 The Kapıkaya fan delta was fed from the northern end of the Aksu Basin; the Kozan was fed from the east side; and the Bucak was fed from the west side (like the Karadağ and Kargı ones).[2]^: 35

A "homogenous" tuff deposit, c. 10m thick, exists near Çalkaya village.[1]^: 374 There are "ubiquitous" pumice clasts, which in some place form "channel-fill deposits".[1]^: 374 The Çalkaya tuff is interpreted as a shallow depositional ring formed by "a small, shallow phreatomagmatic eruption", only a few hundred meters across.[1]^: 374 No evidence of the actual eruption site has been found.[1]^: 374

Further north, around Yeşilkaraman, there are traces of "a channel filled with tuffaceous material and pumice pebbles" that cuts down into a sandy soil layer; the pumice is similar to that at Çalkaya.[1]^: 374 Glover and Robertson interpreted the Yeşilkaraman deposit as "reworking of a similar tuff-ring into a clastic channel, together with other sediment".[1]^: 374