Jaghbub

In the year of its founding, Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi established an important Zawiya there.[6] The Encyclopedia of Africa points to him being the founder of Jaghbub.[7] As a result, Jaghbub became the metaphorical capital for the Senussi movement, and remained so from 1856 to 1895.[8] The role of Jaghbub as a capital was demonstrated through how regional Senussi sheiks would meet annually in Jaghbub to report and discuss the situation at the zawiyas they ran.[9] Senussi ended up dying in Jaghbub in 1859.[5] Jaghbub became a particularly important for the Senussi movement because its location and nomads in the region that were attracted to the Senussi message.[10] Running Senussi operations from Jaghbub also allowed their work to be disentangled from that of any particular tribe.[11] Moreover, the town was along a pilgrimage route to Mecca,[12] and additional sources point to Jaghbub being founded along a trade route.[6] The Senussi's would actively work there to spread their religious influence.[13]

The Zawiya founded by Senussi became a site of Islamic intellectual learning and Senussi military training, including horseback training.[8][14] It would draw in students all across North Africa.[13] Notable figures, such as the poet Rajab Hamad Buhwaish al-Minifi, were educated in Jaghbub.[14] In addition, Omar al-Mukhtar was provided with military training in Jaghbub as well. Moreover, Abd al-Mut'al would also stay in Jaghbub for some time.[15]

In the 1880s Jaghbub was receiving smuggled weapons shipments from the Ottoman Empire through the Bedouin tribes.[16] During this time, the Turkish governor of Awjala grew angry with how tribespeople were sending massive quantities of grain to Jaghbub as tribute to the Senussis when they often resisted to paying the Ottoman Empire taxes.[8]

Through the latter part of the 19th century, Jaghbub began to attract a small population of migrants escaping Ottoman expropriation of their property in Cyrenacia.[17]

Both the Ottoman and British Empires laid claim on Jaghbub in the years before the First World War.[18] Through the duration of the Italo-Turkish war, the British Empire considered Jaghbub to be British territory.[19] By 1912, Jaghbub had reemerged as a center of Senussi power. This began diplomatic disputes between Britain and Italy over control of the town as the Senussis were actively resisting Italy from the town.[18]

In a meeting between Enver Bey, Sayyid Ahmad, and other Ottoman officers at Jaghbub, the Ottoman officers decided to continue resistance against Italian forces, though they could only do so up to 1913.[20]

In 1913, it was uncovered that Dr. Izzet-el-Gindi, sent by the Egyptian Khedive had been acting on behalf of the Italians in secret negotiations between the Khedive of Egypt and Italy to transfer Jaghbub to Italy. More specifically, the Khedive was discovered to have been bribed for doing this. Rodd would later note to the Italian government to stop using the Khedive for the negotiations. Robert Vansittart warned the Khedive that he would be removed from power if something like that were to happen again. Grey would note to an ambassador in London that Britain would not cede Jaghbub as a part of a deal.[18]

Sayyid arrested Al-Baruni and Hilal in a prison in Jaghbub after Hilal agreed to a plot rejected by Ahmad al-Sharif to get the Senussis to fight the British. However, in 1916 Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif agreed to open an Ottoman front against the British, sending 500 troops through Jaghbub to occupy several oases.[20]

The Italians were concerned by the possibility that British corporations might start building infrastructure in Jaghbub, which could counter Italian influence.[9] In response, debates would begin to ensue over what to do about Jaghbub.

In 1920, Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was able to make a deal with Italy to make himself Amir of Cyrenacia and which would give autonomy to Jaghbub along with other towns. In return, they agreed to the Legge Fondamentale of Italy, to not tax locals beyond what was normal, and to disband their armies. However, they never followed through with disbanding their armies.[21] These events occurred within the context of the background towards the start of the Second Italo-Senussi War.

During Italy's suppression campaign and in the context of the Second Italo-Senussi War, Jahgbub became a target for being known to be a major center of rebel organization. Jaghbub had been known to be a conduit for cross border supply transfers for the Senussis from Egyptian sources.[6]

As a result, a diplomatic situation arose between Italy and Egypt, with Italy claiming that Egypt was not supposed to own Jaghbub according to a map made around 1841.[6] Amman has argued that Italian desire to control Jaghbub came from the desire to quell the Senussi movement, which would not be possible without controlling the city.[6] Egypt repeatedly emphasized their concerns for not wanting to cede Jaghbub to Italy, citing multiple issues over potential Arab unrest in Egypt, concerns that they would be losing a strategic location, that the promise was made by the British during the first world war, and that the desire to quell the Senussis could be an excuse to demand other Egyptian oasis towns.[6] From the British perspective, people like Fathi considered Jaghbub to be Egyptian lands from a French and a German map. However, Fathi was willing willing to trade Jaghbub for a piece of territory.[9] As the diplomatic conflict persisted, Italy made their intentions to occupy Jaghbub through force clear.[9] Initially, the British were completely hostile to the idea of transferring Jaghbub to Italy, though they promised to not "encroach" on Italian lands.[9] Complicating the situation was how the British had promised to transfer Jaghbub to Italian control in exchange for Italy ceding the Sallum region to Egypt, but under what treaty is unclear.[6][22] A dissertation by Donnarumma argues this occurs within the context of Italy and Britain sharing the Mediterranean sea.[22] Eventually, a treaty was signed between Italy and Egypt which transferred Jaghbub to Italy on December 6, 1925.[9] This treaty was sometimes referred to as the treaty of Jaghbub.[23] To avoid Bedouin arrest, the Egyptian government asked the Italians to respect the religion of the locals and to protect the grand Senussi's tomb.[9] After the treaty was signed, debate persisted on whether the locals of Jaghbub would be able to choose their nationality.[9] In their historical analysis, Rappas argues that the deal was agreed to by Britain to improve relations with Italy in an effort to check French power in Europe.[24] Around the same year the treaty was signed, the capital for Senussi operations was moved from Jaghbub to Kufra.[25] After Italy retained control over Jaghbub, they began to construct the Frontier Wire, which was a 270 km long wall that stretched from the Mediterranean coastline all the way to Jaghbub.[26] This wall was made in part from barbed wire.[27] The construction of the wall allowed the Italians to control cross border movement supporting Alwad Ali and prevent rebel leaders, particularly Omar Mukhtar, from escaping into Egypt.[28] Around early 1926, with the help of the Frontier Wire, the Italians were able to successfully occupy Jaghbub, quelling the Senussi armed movement. In 1928, Senussis flocked from Kufra as the Italians had managed to occupy the region, moving back to Jaghbub.[29] By 1932, Jaghbub began to lose its prominence as a trading center.[5]

The Siege of Giarabub was fought between Commonwealth and Italian forces during World War II. Italian and Libyan colonial troops led by Colonel Salvatore Castagna resisted a siege by mostly Australian troops for three months before being forced to surrender on 23 March 1941.[30] The resistance of the Italian troops was celebrated by the fascist regime and used to minimize the military defeat in Cyrenaica.

During WWII, questions arose over how to assign colonial territory of the Italian empire postwar. Though some suggestions were made to transfer Jaghbub back into Egyptian control as an autonomous province, an Egyptian ambassador to Britain and a British North African military leader were hesitant to do this out of fear of angering Arab populations and being perceived as harsh.[31]

Italian oil company CORI, which was partnered with AGIP acquired a grant to purchase vast swaths of Libyan land southwest of Jaghbub, where it eventually struck oil.[32]

During the 1977 war between Egypt and Libya, Jaghbub was the site of a prominent battle which killed 2000 people.[33]

During Gaddafi's reign, the graves of historical figures in Jaghbub were targeted. The Senussi college and mosque there were ordered to be demolished in 1984.[5] As a part of the demolition process, the bodies of Senussi and his brother in law were either excavated and dumped in the desert or were stolen.[5] A news article written by Michel Cousins asserted that this move failed, as around 2011 pro-Senussi sentiment was likely the highest it had been since the 1960s.[34]

One source claims that the British directed the Italians to negotiate the border issue with the Egyptians themselves.[22] However, seeing that British officials like Fathi also had an interest in the issue, more research and secondary sources are needed to clarify what is meant.[9] Alternatively, this could be an outright contradiction in which one of the sources is incorrect.

There appears to be agreement that Jaghbub was promised to the Italians by the British, but under what treaty has been disputed. Donnarumma claims this promise was made under the treaty of London in return for transferring the Sallum area to Egypt.[22] However, Ammann clarifies the town was promised under the Milner Scialoia agreement of 1920, with Milner and Sciaola agreeing to it because of the London pact.[39]

Some sources claim that the move away from Jaghbub was done to avoid disputes and situations with the Ottomans. However, other sources particularly stress this move was more the Senussis seeing greater opportunity to expand their influence from making this move.[12] Klaus suggests part of this opportunity came from the desire to strengthen critical trade routes, which would have been difficult to do from Jaghbub.[12]

The question of who or what made the transition of moving the Senussi capital from Jaghbub to Kufra in 1895 also remains disputed. Some sources credit the move to Sheikh al-Mahdi.[20] However, Minawi stands out for implying the date of the move was 1896, and that mosque members incentivized the move to Kufra by moving there.[16]

There was even variation between sources on the length of the fence. Vandewalle claimed that the fence was 300 km long.[39] However, the majority of others point to the fence being 270 km long. One source that supports this assertion written by Michael Ebner claims the length of the fence to be 270 km long.[26]

Jaghbub's has grown from roughly 466 people in 1950, 884 in 1970, 2220 people in 2000, to around 2960 people with a median age of 29 as of 2023.[40]

Jaghbub was an oasis associated with providing dates to caravan travelers.[41]

In 1926, an Italian geographer and geologist Desai went to Jaghbub to learn more about geology and geography there.[42] James Holland was the first documented American to have traveled to Jaghbub, where he took pictures of famous Senussi figures.[43]

The construction of the fence was dramatized in the film Lion of the Desert. In addition, the movie Giarabub made in 1942 depicted the conquest of an Italian fort in Libya.[44]