All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes

Angelou reciting her poem "On the Pulse of Morning" at President Bill Clinton's inauguration in 1993

All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes, published in 1986, is the fifth installment of Maya Angelou's series of seven autobiographies. The success of Angelou's previous autobiographies and the publication of four volumes of poetry had brought Angelou a considerable amount of fame by 1986.[4] And Still I Rise, published in 1978, reinforced Angelou's success as a writer. Her first volume of poetry, Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water 'fore I Diiie (1971) was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize.[4][5]

As writer Hilton Als states, Angelou was one of the first African-American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life, and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books, something she continues in Traveling Shoes.[6] Writer Julian Mayfield, who calls her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings "a work of art that eludes description",[6] states that Angelou's work sets a precedent not only for other Black women writers, but for the genre of autobiography as a whole.[6]

Als called Angelou one of the "pioneers of self-exposure", willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices.[6] For example, while Angelou was composing her second autobiography, Gather Together in My Name, she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute. Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to "tell the truth as a writer" and "be honest about it".[7] Through the writing of her life stories Angelou has become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women.[8] It made her, as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated, "without a doubt, ... America's most visible black woman autobiographer".[9]

According to McPherson, Traveling Shoes is "a mixture of Maya Angelou's personal recollection and a historical document of the time in which it is set",[10] the early 1960s. This was the first time that many Black Americans, due to the independence of Ghana and other African states, as well as the emergence of African leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah, were able to view Africa in a positive way.[10] Ghana was "the center of an African cultural renaissance"[11] and of Pan-Africanism during this time.

According to Angelou, the title of Traveling Shoes comes from a spiritual.[13] African-American scholar Lyman B. Hagen reports that the title comes from the spiritual "All God's Chillun Got Wings", Angelou's "clever reference"[11] to her ongoing search for a home while being aware of "our ultimate home".[11] The title demonstrates Angelou's love of African-American spirituals and deep sense of religion that appears in all of her works. Critic Mary Jane Lupton finds the appearance of the word "traveling" purposeful, since it emphasizes the journey theme, one of Angelou's most important themes of the book. Like Angelou's previous volumes in her series, the title contributes to its plot and thematic impact.[13]

All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes begins as Angelou's previous book, The Heart of a Woman, ends: with her depiction of a serious automobile accident involving her son Guy. After spending two years in Cairo, they come to Accra to enroll Guy in the University of Ghana, and the accident occurs three days after they arrive. Following Guy's long convalescence, they remain in Ghana, Angelou for four years, from 1962 to 1965. Angelou describes Guy's recovery, including her deep depression. She is confronted by her friend Julian Mayfield, who introduces her to writer and actor Efua Sutherland, the Director of the National Theatre of Ghana. Sutherland becomes Angelou's "sister-friend" and allows her to cry out all her pain and bitterness.

Accra

Most of the action of All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes takes place in Accra, Ghana.

Angelou finds a job at the University of Ghana and "falls in love"[14] with the country and with its people, who remind her of African Americans she knew in Arkansas and California. As the parent of an adult, she experiences new freedoms, respects Guy's choices, and consciously stops making her son the center of her life. She creates new friendships with her roommates and native Africans, both male and female. She becomes part of a group of American expatriates whom she calls the "Revolutionist Returnees", people such as Mayfield and his wife Ana Livia, who share her struggles.

Angelou strengthens her ties with Africa while traveling through eastern Ghanaian villages, and through her relationships with several Africans. She describes a few romantic prospects, one of which is with a man who proposes that she become his "second wife" and accept West African customs. She also becomes a supporter of Ghana president Kwame Nkrumah and close friends with tribal leader Nana Nketsia and poet Kwesi Brew. During one of her travels through West Africa, a woman identifies her as a member of the Bambara tribe based solely upon her appearance and behavior, which helps Angelou discover the similarities between her American traditions and those of her West African ancestors.

Although Angelou is disillusioned with the nonviolent strategies of Martin Luther King Jr., she and her friends commemorate his 1963 march on Washington by organizing a parallel demonstration in Ghana. The demonstration becomes a tribute to African-American W.E.B. Du Bois, who has died the previous evening. A few pages later, she allies herself with Malcolm X, who visits Ghana in 1964 to elicit the support of Black world leaders. He encourages Angelou to return to America to help him coordinate his efforts, as she had done for King in The Heart of a Woman. While driving Malcolm X to the airport, he chastises her for her bitterness about Du Bois' wife Shirley Graham's lack of support for the civil rights movement.

Angelou and her roommates reluctantly hire a village boy named Kojo to do housework for them. He reminds her of her brother Bailey, and he serves as a substitute for her son Guy. She accepts a maternal role with Kojo, helping him with his schoolwork and welcoming the thanks of his family. Traveling Shoes, like Angelou's previous autobiographies, is full of conflicts with Guy, especially surrounding his independence, his separation from his mother, and his choices. When she learns that he is dating a woman older than her, she reacts with anger and threatens to strike him, but he patronizes her, calls her his "little mother",[15] and insists upon his autonomy from her.

The African narrative in Traveling Shoes is interrupted by "a journey within a journey"[13] when she decides to join a theatrical company in a revival of The Blacks, a play by French writer Jean Genet. As she had done in New York City and described in her previous autobiography The Heart of a Woman, she plays the White Queen and tours Berlin and Venice with the company, which include Cicely Tyson, James Earl Jones, Lou Gossett Jr. and Roscoe Lee Browne. While in Berlin, she accepts a breakfast invitation with a racist, wealthy German family.

The book ends with Angelou's decision to return to America. At the airport, a group of her friends and associates, including Guy, are present to wish her farewell as she leaves. She metaphorically connects her departure from the African continent with the forced enslavement of her ancestors and her departure from Guy.

All seven of Angelou's installments of her life story continue the long tradition of African-American autobiography. Starting with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Angelou made a deliberate attempt while writing her books to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing, changing, and expanding the genre.[16] Her use of fiction-writing techniques such as dialogue, characterization, and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction.[17] Angelou expressed in a 1989 interview her opinion that she was the only "serious" writer to choose the genre to express herself.[18] Angelou reports not one person's story, but the collective's.[19] She represents the convention in African-American autobiography, which serves as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people.[20] As Angelou had done in her previous autobiographies, she uses elements of the African-American slave narrative, including as Lupton puts it, "the journey, the quest for freedom; [and] empathy for the horrors suffered by slaves".[21]

All of Angelou's autobiographies conform to the genre's standard structure: they are written by a single author, they are chronological, and they contain elements of character, technique, and theme.[22] Although Angelou referred to her books as autobiographies in 1983 interview with African-American literature critic Claudia Tate,[23] she acknowledged that there are fictional aspects to all her books, with the tendency to "diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth".[24] When speaking of her unique use of the genre, Angelou acknowledges that she follows the slave narrative tradition of "speaking in the first-person singular talking about the first-person plural, always saying I meaning 'we'".[8] McPherson states that Angelou is a master of this autobiographical form, especially the "confrontation of the Black self within a society that threatens to destroy it", but departs from it in Traveling Shoes by taking the action to Africa.[25] Lupton, referring to the journey motif in the book, insists that its narrative point of view is "again sustained through the first-person autobiographer in motion".[13]

Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to all her books, although there is less fictionalization in Traveling Shoes than in her previous autobiographies.[26] Her approach parallels the conventions of many African-American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US, when truth was often censored for purposes of self-protection.[27] Hagen places Angelou in the long tradition of African-American autobiography, but insists that Angelou has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form.[28] Journalist George Plimpton asked her in a 1998 interview if she changed the truth to improve her story; she stated, "Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people, because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about".[3] Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories, she fictionalizes them to make an impact and to enhance her readers' interest.[29] Angelou's long-time editor, Robert Loomis stated that she could have rewritten any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader.

For the first and only time in Angelou's series, she repeats the same episode in detail—her son's automobile accident—at the end of her fourth autobiography The Heart of a Woman and the beginning of this one, a technique that both centralizes each installment and connects each book in the series with each other. Additionally, each volume "ends with abrupt suspense".[30] It also creates a strong and emotional link between the two autobiographies.[31] Angelou has said that she used this technique so that each book would stand alone and to establish the setting in Traveling Shoes—"who she was and what she was doing in Africa".[32]

According to Angelou, even though they had met previously, she and Malcolm X (pictured) became friends in Ghana.[33]

In Traveling Shoes, Angelou has matured as a writer to the point that she can experiment with form. For the first time, instead of using traditional numbered chapters, the book consists of anecdotes separated with a few inches of white space.[34] Lupton calls these segments "short stories or vignettes",[35] a technique that Angelou had used before, to portray dynamic characters such as Malcolm X. Angelou's stories are told within the context of her entire life story,[36] but each vignette can be read or analyzed individually, without harming the text's consistency.[26] Most of Angelou's anecdotes no longer focus on the famous or her family, but on Ghanaians;[26] for example, according to Lupton, her description of her houseboy Kojo is her most delightful character sketch in the book.[35]

In Traveling Shoes, Angelou continues to demonstrate her strengths as an autobiographer, especially her ability to connect emotionally with her audience, which Lupton calls her "superb use of language in recording moments of emotional intensity".[37] As in her previous books, Angelou uses inventive metaphors and personifications of abstract objects and concepts.[38] Even her descriptions exhibit the style, developed after years of maturity as a writer, of "displaying vivid and captivating sentences and phrases".[39] Angelou's self-portrait of a Black woman and her ability to communicate her misfortunes destroys stereotypes and demonstrates "the trials, rejections, and endurances which so many Black women share".[40] Hagen calls this book "reflective" and its writer "introspective and deeply moved".[38]

Even though Traveling Shoes can be read on its own, Angelou connects the events in this book with her previous volumes, as she had done throughout her series. As McPherson states, "Everyday experiences serve as links to Angelou's past and thus embody powerful meanings".[41] Events that occur in this book and Angelou's responses to them evoke earlier moments in her previous books; for example, Angelou responds to her son's accident with muteness, as she had responded to her rape in Caged Bird.[42] As is customary in autobiography in general, she uses the literary convention of flashbacks in order to tie this book to its predecessors. She uses humor, another convention she has used before, both to criticize racism and to balance her weighty insights. She also uses quotes from literary sources, especially the Bible, which demonstrates that she has not lost contact with her family roots as she searches for a home and for her identity.[39]

Traveling Shoes is "more tightly controlled"[13] than Angelou's previous books, most likely due to the dominance of the travel motif.[13] Setting, always an important element for Angelou, becomes even more important in this book. Unlike her previous books, most of this book's action occurs in one setting, Accra, which contributes to and is tightly connected with her personal development.[43] Angelou's feelings towards living in Ghana are ambivalent, which provides Traveling Shoes with richness and depth.[44] Many feel that Angelou's inclusion of her tour with The Blacks to Berlin and Venice as a digression that detracts from the African setting, but Lupton sees it as a contribution to her character development and provides the book with a "universal quality" as Angelou reaches beyond the confines of her personal life and encounters racism in Germany. During this trip, she comes to see her fellow African-Americans differently, as more spirited than the Africans she has met in Ghana.[32]

All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes was greeted with both praise and disappointment,[1] although reviews of the book were generally positive.[71] According to the Poetry Foundation, "Most critics have judged Angelou's subsequent autobiographies in light of her first, and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings remains the most highly praised".[8] Hagen states that Traveling Shoes, as in her previous books, demonstrated Angelou's "broad appeal"[71] to both her readers and her critics. The book's accuracy was verified by her close friend and fellow expatriate Julian Mayfield.[72]

Even though Traveling Shoes is Angelou's fifth book in her series of autobiographies, it is able to stand on its own.[73] Houston A. Baker Jr., in his review of the book, called Angelou "one of the geniuses of Afro-American serial autobiography".[68] Interviewer Connie Martinson told Angelou, "You make me, the reader ... live through it with you".[74] Scholar Eugenia Collier, writing when the possibility of the publication of consequent autobiographies in Angelou's series was uncertain, considered Traveling Shoes "the apex toward which the other autobiographies have pointed".[75] Hagen considered Traveling Shoes "another professional, rich, full, journeyman text",[38] and saw a higher-quality of writing, especially her "often lyrical and soaring"[38] prose, than in her previous books. Other reviewers agree. Reviewer Janet A. Blundell found the book "absorbing reading",[76] and reviewer Jackie Gropman stated that the "prose sings".[64]

Some critics were less favorable in their views of All God's Children Need Traveling Shoes.[1] Even though the book left interviewer Russell Harris with "a haunting feeling",[77] he found the book more "pedantic"[77] than her previous books, and thought that it contained fewer fictional aspects compared to Angelou's other autobiographies. Scholar John C. Gruesser found the conflicts in the book unresolved and the ending "too easily manufactured at the last minute to resolve the problem of the book".[78] Reviewer Deborah E. McDowell agreed, and found the resolution of the plot to be "stereotyped and unauthentic".[79]

Comparisons have been drawn between this work and the travel writing of Noo Saro-Wiwa in her work Looking for Transwonderland.[80]

The first line of the pop song "Twist in My Sobriety" by Tanita Tikaram uses the title of Angelou's book, "All God's children need travelling shoes", to open the song as the first verse in the first stanza.