Anzac-class frigate

HMNZS Te Kaha in 2017

From the late 1960s decision of the UK government to withdraw the Royal Navy from East of Suez in the early 1970s considerable doubt existed within the RNZN, government, and community about the continuing relevance, viability, and usefulness of an RNZN force of 3 to 4 frigates. The option of the United States Coast Guard's (USCG) Hamilton-class cutters was seriously considered as an alternative to the order of HMNZS Canterbury in 1968, which was approved under the understanding that New Zealand would hold continued access to the UK market after Britain entered the European Economic Community and was affordable only because it was part of a British deal with the Yarrow shipyard to build seven RN, Chilean and RNZN Leanders at less than the cost to save shipyard jobs in Scotland.

During the late 1970s, proposals for a modified Hamilton-class cutter with less range or the RN Type 21 frigate with similar anti-submarine capability to a Leander but with a smaller crew and with less AW, AA, and AD. Both these proposals and others for full combat Dutch or American Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates were rejected by the Muldoon government and in the early 1980s, a number of retired naval officers and political scientists like Helen Clark and Robert Miles were seriously debating and writing papers and articles, suggesting options such as RN OPVs, the Castle-class and the USCG's WMEC Bear-class. The navy was interested in some of these ideas, but only for the option proposed by the 1978 Defence Review of acquiring 2 OPV vessels to patrol the expanded EEZ and free the Leanders for other uses and for replacement of the inadequate and worn out Lake-class patrol vessels. After the election of the Lange Labour government, thinking on alternatives to frigates for the RNZN had moved towards purpose-built designs rather like the Irish Navy's Eithne patrol corvette, a sort of 1,800-ton high endurance corvette with Leander-like helicopter hangar and pad[note 1] or small Meko 100–140 designs[23] rather different from those built for Argentina. After the nuclear ships crisis and other events, the acquisition of some Anzac frigates was virtually certain, because the key Labour MP Jim Anderton, either accepted the Anzac ships as a necessary increased self-defence capability with the securing of a nuclear-free policy or tacitly agreed not to oppose it like Helen Clark.

The new most touted off-the-shelf options in 1986–88 (the Castle and Bear-class vessels) were no longer possible, as the Scottish shipbuilders had closed and development of the Bear cutter option into a stretched vessel was effectively impossible after the ANZUS impasse. The New Zealand government's planned acquisition of the Anzac-class frigates was a major point of debate and contention: researcher Peter Greener claims that it "was possibly the most strongly debated defence purchase of the century".[18] In New Zealand at the time, "frigate" was a dirty word, and attempts to make the replacement of the old navy ships more palatable to the public included using euphemisms like "ocean combat ship" and "ocean surveillance vessel".[24] The government's official stance was dedication to maintaining a blue-water navy, primarily in order to defend the nation and contribute to regional security.[25] Despite this, the government was slow to respond to opponents of the project, which included peace campaigners, politicians (from both within and outside the Labour Party, and from both ends of the political spectrum), and military personnel.[18][26] Most of the concern revolved around the cost of purchasing frigate-type ships, along with the idea that four high-capability warships would be too few and too overspecialised to operate in the roles envisioned for the RNZN.[27]

The Danish patrol frigate HDMS Thetis. The Thetis class was one of the alternates proposed during debates on New Zealand's acquisition of the Anzac class.

The primary role foreseen for the RNZN was fisheries protection, particularly following the introduction of a 200-nautical-mile (370 km; 230 mi) Exclusive Economic Zone by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this was thought to require a minimum of six vessels to effectively police.[28] Peace campaigners claimed that the purchase of the Anzacs was a politically motivated decision made under pressure from Australia, which was trying to support its shipbuilding industry, and stated that the Fourth Labour Government was undermining its commitment to reduce the nation's deficit by spending so much on high-tech warships (although figures of $NZ20 billion for purchase and 20 years of operation was misquoted as an upfront lump sum).[29] There were also concerns that by possessing modern warships, New Zealand would be "dragged" back into ANZUS.[30] One proposal suggested to avoid this was that the New Zealand Anzacs be fitted with inferior engines that would reduce the vessels' top speed and make it impossible to operate with United States Navy fleets.[14] However, these changes would have incurred major additional expenses.[14] A recurring alternate proposal was the purchase of the British Castle-class patrol vessel design.[31] Two months after tenders for the project closed, the managing director of Svendborg Skibsværft began to campaign for the construction of the Danish IS-86 patrol vessel (later designated the Thetis-class frigate) for the RNZN.[32] In response to these proposals, the government indicated that it was committing to purchasing Australian ships, and that interoperability with the RAN (which the alternate ship designs were incapable of) was a major element in the decision.[19]

At the time of the August 1989 decision for AMECON to build the MEKO-based frigate, the controversy was still ongoing in New Zealand.[19] David Lange, a major supporter of the Anzac project, had only just resigned from the prime ministership.[19] Despite the Labour Party's national conference rejecting the frigate project a year earlier, the purchase of two Anzacs, with the option to acquire two more, was approved by Prime Minister Geoffrey Palmer's cabinet on 4 September, then a majority of the Labour caucus on 7 September.[26][33] From the government's perspective, the Anzac project was being seen as a litmus test of New Zealand's commitment to (among other things) relations with Australia and regional defence, particularly after the problems between New Zealand and the United States.[14][34]

Despite the government signing contracts for the purchase of two Anzacs in November 1989, the project continued to be a bone of contention in New Zealand politics, particularly after the Fourth Labour Government lost the 1990 election to the National Party, which formed the Fourth National Government.[35] In 1992, Minister of Defence Warren Cooper began claiming in several arenas that exercising the option for two more frigates may not be necessary.[36] Following the 1996 election, the National Party retained power, but only in coalition with the New Zealand First party, which opposed the purchase of additional frigates.[37] Other options for replacing the two remaining Leanders were explored, but these were generally more expensive than purchasing the Anzacs.[38] The US Clinton Administration partly discredited the option of a third Anzac by formally offering the RNZN two FFG-7s shorthulls of 15–17 years age, purportedly armed with SM1 Standard missiles and later 28 F-16s which it had refused to transfer to Pakistan. These offers were made partly because of US concern that Australia needed more regional defence support to conduct a more robust foreign and economic policy in SE Asia. However the F-16 offer, offered the NZ Cabinet an option and out and they took it, rather than be immensely unpopular in both Canberra and Washington by rejecting both.[39] In the view of NZ PM Jenny Shipley the Australians had made a good offer, but it was not good enough and there were many alternative ship designs. Internal political opposition, particularly from New Zealand First, prevented the exercising of the contract option for two more ships before it lapsed on 10 November 1997, at which point the government was considering the purchase of a single frigate, outside the terms of the original contract.[40][41] A year later, the idea was still being debated internally, although the proposal had been downgraded to buying one of the active Australian Anzacs second-hand, which the RAN could then replace by building an additional ship.[42] At this point, the National-New Zealand First coalition had collapsed, and the National Party was only holding on to power by the support of minority parties and independents; support that was likely to be withdrawn if a third frigate was approved.[43] Cabinet rejected the plan, and the issue of replacing the Leander-class frigate Canterbury was deferred.[44]

Mark 45 5-inch 54-caliber main gun aboard HMAS Arunta (FFH 151), with side inspection panel open

At the time of construction, the main weapon for the Anzacs was a United Defense 5-inch 54 calibre Mark 45 Mod 2 dual purpose gun.[7][46] The forward-mounted gun is capable of firing 32-kilogram (71 lb) shells at a rate of 20 rounds per minute, to a distance of 23 kilometres (14 mi).[46] The barrel can elevate to 65 degrees.[46] This was supplemented by an eight-cell Lockheed Martin Mark 41 Mod 5 vertical launch system for RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles as a point-defence system.[7][46] The Sea Sparrow is a semi-active radar homing missile, with a 39-kilogram (86 lb) warhead, a range of 14.6 kilometres (9.1 mi), and a top speed of Mach 2.5.[46] Two 12.7-millimetre (0.50 in) machine guns were fitted for close defence.[46]

A missile-armed helicopter was a key component of the frigates' armament.[7] When construction started, both navies were planning for, but had yet to identify, new helicopters to be operated by the frigates; as an interim measure, the RAN used Sikorsky S-70B-2 Seahawks, while the RNZN embarked Westland Wasps.[7]

Ships were fitted for but not with a close-in weapons system, two quad-canister Harpoon anti-ship missile launchers, and a second Mark 41 launcher.[7] After the ships were completed, both navies fitted Mark 32 3-tube torpedo launchers to their frigates.[46] These were taken from older ships where possible; for example, Te Kaha's launchers came from Southland.[46][48] The launchers were configured to fire the Mark 46 Mod 5 torpedo, an active/passive homing torpedo with a range of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) at 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph), and a 44-kilogram (97 lb) warhead.[46]

The radar suite includes a Raytheon SPS-49(V)8 ANZ radar for aerial search and long-range surveillance, a Saab 9LV 453 Target Indication Radar for air and surface search, an Atlas Elektronik 9600 ARPA navigational radar, and a second Saab 9LV 453 unit for fire control.[7][46] All ships were initially fitted with a ThomsonSintra Spherion B hull-mounted bow sonar, for active search and attack operations.[7] From Warramunga onwards, ships were launched with a Petrel Mine and Obstacle Avoidance Sonar system.[46][49] this was later retrofitted to Anzac. All ships were fitted for but not with a towed-array sonar, with the RAN and RNZN following separate acquisition programs for these.[7] The frigates were also fitted for but not with SATCOM and a Helo datalink.[46]

Countermeasures and electronic warfare equipment fitted at launch included Mark 36 SRBOC launchers, an SLQ-25A towed torpedo decoy, four four-cell Nulka decoy launchers, Racal Thorn modified Sceptre-A electronic support measures (ESM) equipment, and a Telefunken PST-1720 Telegon 10 radar intercept unit.[46][50] The Anzacs were fitted for but not with offboard active ECM systems.[46] The Sceptre-A equipment was unable to meet the required performance specifications, and Thales UK (which previously acquired Racal Thorn) was contracted in 2001 to replace the units with the Centaur ESM.[50]

A Cossor AIMS Mark XII identification-friend-or-foe system is also installed.[46]

The core of the Anzacs' combat system was built around CelsiusTech's (now Saab) 9LV 453 Mark 3 distributed command and fire-control system.[7]

The CEAFAR active electronically scanned array radars fitted to HMAS Perth as part of the ASMD upgrade

The RAN commenced plans to improve their frigates' combat capability in 1996, with the Warfighting Improvement Program (WIP).[48] Upgrades proposed under the WIP included installation of a phased-array radar, a second Mark 41 vertical launch system.[51] The WIP was scrapped near the end of 1999, and plans for a less ambitious anti-ship missile defence (ASMD) upgrade were made.[50] In 2004, Tenix, Saab, and the Department of Defence formed a Private Public Partnership to upgrade the anti-ship missile defence (ASMD) capability of the Anzac class, through the installation of CEA Technologies' CEAFAR and CEAMOUNT active phased array radars, a Vampir NG Infrared Search and Track system, and Sharpeye Navigational Radar Systems.[50][55] On 18 January 2010, Perth docked at the Australian Marine Complex in Henderson, Western Australia for the ASMD upgrade.[55] Both of the frigate's masts were replaced, and the operations room layout was improved.[55] Additional ballast was required to maintain stability, and the combined weight increase brought the ship's full load displacement to 3,810 tons.[56][57] After completion in October 2010, Perth was used to test the modifications, with trials completed in July 2011.[58] Approval to upgrade the other seven RAN Anzacs was granted in November 2011, with work on the A$650 million refits to begin in 2012.[59] As of March 2017, all eight ships of the RAN had completed the upgrade.[60]

From Warramunga onwards, the frigates were launched with the ability to carry and fire the RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM) as a replacement for the Sea Sparrow missile; these were quad-packed into the Mark 41 launcher for a payload of 32 missiles.[7] Warramunga was the first ship in the world fitted with the ESSM, and the first test firing was conducted aboard on 21 January 2003.[57] The modifications entered operational service aboard three ships in June 2004.[50] A CEA Technologies solid-state continuous wave illuminator was also fitted as part of the ESSM system.[50]

From 2005 onwards, the RAN began fitting the Anzacs and the Adelaides with Harpoon Block II missiles in two quad-tube canister launchers.[61] The Australian Anzacs were fitted for but not with the launchers, but the originally planned location on 02 deck was found to be unsuitable, and the launchers were relocated to 01 deck, in front of the bridge.[50] Around the same time, the RAN began to fit all frigates deploying to the Persian Gulf with two M2HB .50 calibre machine guns in Mini Typhoon mounts, installed on the aft corners of the hangar roof.[62] Two TopLite EO directors are used with the guns.[62]

The Mark 32 torpedo tubes aboard the Australian frigates were originally fitted with American Mark 46 anti-submarine torpedoes, but these were replaced with the French-Italian MU90 Impact torpedo prior to 2008.[63] Toowoomba was the first Australian ship to fire an MU90 torpedo, during a test firing in June 2008, and Stuart performed the first 'warshot' firing of an armed MU90.[63][64]

The RAN commenced tendering for a helicopter design to replace the Seahawks aboard the Australian Anzacs in 1996, with a contract for 11 Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters signed in 1997.[65][66] In addition to the Anzacs, the acquired helicopter also had to be operable from the class of offshore patrol vessels the RAN was planning to build with the Royal Malaysian Navy (Malaysia later withdrew from the plan, and the RAN acquired the smaller Armidale-class patrol boats, which were not helicopter-equipped), with a second contract to be signed for these at a later date.[66][67][68] In order to get the best capability for the cheapest price, the Australian Department of Defence opted to have Kaman acquire 40-year-old SH-2F Seasprite airframes decommissioned by the United States Navy, and fit modern flight systems to the reconditioned airframes.[67] This approach led to major delays, and the helicopters were found to be inoperable in low-visibility conditions.[65][67] By 2006, ten of the helicopters had been delivered, but none were permitted to fly.[65] The Super Seasprite acquisition was cancelled outright in March 2008.[65] Following the acquisition of the Romeo Seahawk helicopter variant, modifications to the Anzacs began to embark the helicopter.[69]

As part of the ANZAC Mid-life Capability Assurance Programme (AMCAP) upgrade under SEA 1448, Phase 4B, the SPS-49(V)8 was replaced with CEAFAR2-L L band phased array radar, along with replacements of the Cossar Mk XII IFF, Exelis ES-3701 ESM and upgrades to the LESCUT, AN/SLR-25C torpedo self-defence system, and the Nulka active missile decoy capability.[70]

Australia is planning to replace the Harpoon Anti-ship missiles with the Kongsberg Naval Strike Missile (NSM) by 2024. The Naval strike missile can be used against both land and sea targets and provides a significant increase in range.[71]

As soon as the New Zealand Anzacs entered service, a Phalanx CIWS weapons system, recycled from decommissioning various Leander frigates, was fitted to each new frigate in addition to the Mark 32 torpedo tube sets.[48]

An SH-2G Super Seasprite taking off from Te Mana in 2008

In 1997, the RNZN began steps to acquire five Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite helicopters for the two frigates.[72] Unlike the Australians, the New Zealand contract specified new-build helicopters.[65] Kaman Aerospace loaned four SH-2F Seasprites to the RNZN while the new helicopters were constructed: the SH-2Fs operated from February 1998 to August 2001, when the first two SH-2Gs were accepted into service.[73]

In 2006, the RNZN fitted two Mini Typhoons for each of its Anzac-class frigates.[62]

In 2007, Te Kaha began undergoing a series of major upgrades as part of the four-stage Platform Systems Upgrade (PSU), planning for which started in 2004.[74] The four areas of modification under the PSU were improved stability and compartment configuration changes, overhaul of the propulsion system, installation of a new Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS), and upgrades to onboard environmental control.[74] The stability upgrades were to accommodate predicted increases in displacement as updated equipment was installed on the ships.[74] As part of the modification, the ships' quarterdecks were partially enclosed, creating space for a gymnasium and improved laundry facilities.[74] Propulsion changes are primarily focused on replacing the TB83 diesel engines with the TB93, providing an additional 1.4 megawatts (1,900 hp) and higher speeds during diesel-only sailing.[74] The IPMS replacement is prompted by the perceived obsolescence of the current system by 2013; as of 2009, tendering for the new system was underway.[74] The environmental control upgrade is intended to improve personnel comfort during deployments to South East Asia, the Middle East, or similar climates, and will use more environmentally friendly products.[74] Each stage of the upgrade is organised to occur simultaneously with ship maintenance dockings, with the first two upgrades being installed during each ship's major maintenance docking in 2009 and 2010 respectively, then the other two upgrades during the next docking in the 2011–2012 period.[74]

A series of austere upgrades were approved on 14 April 2014, at an original contract cost of NZ 446m under the ANZAC Frigate Systems Upgrade (FSU) programme.[75] These include the replacement of the existing combat management system, with a system modelled on that of the RCN Halifax frigates awarded to Lockheed Martin,[76] The British Sea Ceptor anti-air missile replaced the Sea Sparrow on 27 May 2014.[77] Other changes included the Norwegian Penguin Mk 2 Mod 7 for the Seasprite helicopters and the fitting of a Sea Sentor Surface Ship Torpedo Defence, or SSTD system, as well as MASS (Multi Ammunition Softkill System).[78] A new inertial navigation positioning system (Northrop Grumman) and navigation radar and SharpEye™ surveillance radars with an Agile Tracker has been fitted.[79] The main radar will be the Thales SMART-S Mk2 3D radar.[80] Other sensors and upgrades include Link 16, laser warning, and IFF. The Lockheed Martin Combat Management System 330 is also installed on the RNZN frigates,[81] as it increases the eyes on each screen, covering lesser sensors and crew.