Nightfire Island

Human occupation of the Klamath Basin areas may have begun around 6000 BCE.[4] Settlement by Modoc people on the banks of Sheepy Creek is likely to have begun approximately 4000 years BCE,[11] shortly after the eruption of Mount Mazama, as evidenced by a layer of volcanic ash on the lake bed just below the layer that marks the appearance of a new village.[7]

The shallow water level of the marsh, the clay loam, and the basalt rubble basin extended all around and over this area afforded only a weak foundation for settlement. To compensate, inhabitants carried in rocks to strengthen the village's foundation. After centuries of this procedure, they had built an island of an area approximately 2.5 acres (1.0 ha).

Surrounded by marshlands, the villagers could fish and hunt waterfowl.[12] The springs nearest to Nightfire Island are geothermal waters, adding to the comfort of the villagers. During the dry months, the receding water levels allowed for the establishment of a secure hunting station. Charcoal remains show evidence of cooking pits and cremated burial sites within the island. Bones show an early abundance of duck with additional diversity appearing in later years.[4]

Waterfowl droppings within layers of the excavation site show that there were times where the site was abandoned for several hundred years, probably because of the rising of the levels of Indian Tom Lake, climate change during the hot and dry middle Holocene, or changes in the Keno fault.[11] When water levels receded, occupation resumed with the appearance of black charcoal levels from cooking and cremation fires.[7]

Excavations of archeological site 4-SK-4 have produced large collections of bird, mammal, and fish bones, large amounts of obsidian technology (particularly Elko points), bone artifacts, mortars and other stone artifacts as well as other cultural detritus.[11][5] These occupational debris reach a maximum of 3 meters deep. The lower stratum is lacustrine, waterway diatom-rich silt from the original lake floor present during the first occupation of the site. From there, the strata consist of a series of silt, streamland and loam forming a duripan horizon.[13]

Villagers cooked small animals by boiling them in baskets, while larger animals were cooked in rock roasting ovens primarily composed of large basalt rocks. Along with oven rocks, other rocks included broken fragments of mortar and pestles and banded stones used for weights. Banded rocks are generally used for outdoor support such as tying down canoes.[14] On Nightfire Island, banded rocks may have been used for indoor weights since they were found inside the houses and in roasting pits.[15] The number of these rocks and their weight exceeds the traditional canoe weights and even the weights used by the Modoc people for the balsa-type rafts. The banded rocks from Nightfire Island show signs of burning mixed with charcoal from cooking fires.[16] Some stones were used for boiling food in basketry by placing the hot basalt or lava stones into tightly packed woven water-filled baskets.[17]

The presence of buffalo hide on Nightfire Island suggest the village hunters used obsidian and spear-throwers. The most common arrow point found on the site is the Cascade-type. Additionally, the excavation has produced several pressure-flaking tools made of bone and antler used for projectiles, especially before the bow and arrow were in use.[18] Stone anvils from the excavation had single and bilateral worn out pits used for knapping the obsidian to break the spalls from the rock.[19] The large amount of anvils found on Nightfire Island suggest they were used for other purposes than knapping, including cracking bones. The side pits are not worn out consistent with the use as a maul or for pounding food.[18]

While Modocs of the Great Basin had chipped-stone crescents or lunates,[20][21] their presence has not been confirmed on Nightfire Island. Some smaller versions have been excavated but they are of a different shape and material.[22] An increase in small, stemmed and cornr notched arrowheads have been discovered on layers of approximately 2,500 years BCE which corresponds to the peak in the dabbling duck remains and the adoption of the bow and arrow.

• Howe, Carrol B (1979). Ancient Modocs of California and Oregon. Binford & Mort. ISBN 9780832303371.