Assassination of Empress Myeongseong

Between 5:50 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. on 8 October 1895, Queen Min (later "Empress Myeongseong"), the wife of King Gojong of Joseon, was assassinated by a group of Japanese agents under Miura Gorō. This incident is known in Korea as the Eulmi Incident (Korean: 을미사변; Hanja: 乙未事變).[lower-alpha 1] The attack happened at Okhoru (옥호루; 玉壺樓) in Geoncheonggung, which was the rear private royal residence (the king's quarters) inside the palace Gyeongbokgung.

Assassination of Empress Myeongseong
Part of the prelude to the Japanese annexation of Korea

Le Journal illustré cover depicting the assassination
Date8 October 1895
Location
Okhoru, Geoncheonggung, Gyeongbokgung, Seoul, Joseon
37.583138°N 126.977239°E / 37.583138; 126.977239
Result Death of the Queen
Belligerents

 Japan

Korea

Commanders and leaders
Miura Goro
Okamoto Ryūnosuke
Sugimura Fukashi
Sase Kumatetsu
Kunitomo Shigeaki (國友重章)
Nakamura Tateo
Niiro Tokisuke
Hirayama Iwahiko
Adachi Kenzō
Woo Beom-seon
Yi Du-hwang

Gojong
Myeongseong X

Hong Gye-hun †
An Kyŏng-su
Yi Kyŏng-chik †
Hyŏn Hŭng-t'aek
William McEntyre Dye
Strength
Japanese Legation Security Group
Military Training Division (Hullyeondae): 1,000
48 ronin		 500 palace guards
Capital Guards (Siwidae): Estimate: 300-400
Casualties and losses
Unknown military casualties but many court ladies, eunuchs, and officials killed or wounded.

The queen had been assertive and wielded a great amount of political power in Korea. Soon before her death, she aligned Korea with the Russian Empire, in order to counterbalance Japanese influence on the peninsula. This drew the ire of Japan.[1]

The agents were let into the palace by pro-Japanese Korean guards. Once inside, they beat and threatened other members of the Royal Family during their search for the Queen. The Crown Princess was dragged down stairs and beaten. When the Queen was eventually located, she was beaten and killed with a single slash from a sword. Some agents then proceeded to loot the palace, while others stripped her body and examined her genitals. They then covered her corpse in oil and burned it.[2]

The attack has been characterized by modern historians of Japan as "brutal" and "barbaric"; these sentiments were shared by contemporary international and domestic observers. The assassination had been intended to strengthen Japan's position in Korea, but it offered little benefit; its brutality even temporarily harmed Japan's international image.[2] The attack also resulted in Gojong seeking refuge in the Russian legation in Seoul the following year.[3]

Background
See also: Empress Myeongseong § Public policy

In the immediate run-up to her death, the queen consort had allied herself with Russian interests to counterbalance Japanese influence. She was perceived by the Japanese as an important hostile target.[4]

Description

In the early hours of 8 October, the assassination was carried out by Heungseon Daewongun's guide, which was in conflict with Empress Myeongseong. Japanese agents under Miura Gorō carried out the assassination. Miura had orchestrated this incident with Okamoto Ryūnosuke, Sugimura Fukashi, Kunitomo Shigeaki, Sase Kumatetsu , Nakamura Tateo, Hirayama Iwahiko, and over fifty other Japanese men. Said to have collaborated in this were the pro-Japanese officers Major Woo Beom-seon and Major Yi Du-hwang both battalion commanders in the Hullyeondae, a Japanese-trained regiment of the Royal Guards.[5]

Surrounding the palace

It was around midnight when the Japanese ronin led by Okamoto arrived at Gongdeok-ri, but it was around 3 am when Heungseon Daewongun left on Gyo-yeo. Daewongun was sleeping without knowing that they were coming. The Japanese climbed over the wall, captured and imprisoned all the villa inspectors, took their clothes, and had Japanese police officers put them on, in an attempt to disguise themselves as Joseon soldiers. After a long struggle, Daewongun left the house, and it is believed that the Japanese took him out by force. There are claims that it is difficult to believe that the 76-year-old Daewongun participated in the assassination.

When the group reached Seodaemun, they were joined by the 2nd Training Battalion led by Woo Beom-seon. They didn't know until then that they were assassinating the Empress. After a while, the 1st company of the Japanese garrison, consisting of about 140 people who had misunderstood the gathering place and had gone to the wrong place, arrived. Here again time was delayed. At this time, the 3rd company of the Japanese garrison was waiting near Gwanghwamun at Gyeongbokgung Palace, and the commander of the 2nd company of the garrison led the 2nd battalion of the training unit and gathered near Chunsaengmun (Northeast Gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace).

They had arrived in advance and surrounded Gyeongbokgung Palace since around 2 a.m. When gunfire was heard from Gwanghwamun, they climbed over the palace walls from all directions, passed through the Geunjeongjeon Hall of Oejeon, and rushed toward Geoncheong Palace, where Empress Myeongseong resides. At around 2 a.m., when two of King Gojong's bodyguards ran to the Byeolgungwan and reported that Japanese and Joseon military training corps were gathered in the Samgunbu (guard room in front of Gwanghwamun), Lord Hyeonheungtaek immediately sent several palace guards to Gwanghwamun to check the situation . As time passed, Hyeon Heung-taek testified that at around 4 a.m., the Joseon Army training battalion surrounded Chunsaengmun (Northeast Gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace) and Chuseongmun (Northwest Gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace). At this time, Gyeongbokgung Palace was in a state of chaos as gunfire broke out all the way to Gwanghwamun, including the area of ​​Geunjeongjeon, excluding the area around Gyeonghoeru and Sujeongjeon.

As soon as General William McEntyre Dye and Afanasy Sabatin received the report from Deputy Commander Yi Hak-gyun, they got up and went to the star military officer's office, but Sabatin testified that not a single person was seen there, even though two deputy commanders and at least 6 to 7 officers on duty were supposed to be working overtime . In addition, King Gojong was already aware of the commotion in the palace around 4:30 in the morning, and it is believed that Empress Myeongseong left Okhoru, a sleeping quarters, and went into hiding. King Gojong received urgent news that the Japanese army had surrounded the palace, and ordered Lee Beom-jin to rush to the American and Russian embassies in a hurry to ask for help. Lee Beom-jin escaped the palace by jumping from a 4-5 meter high wall to avoid Japanese patrols. Beomjin Lee testified that when he arrived at the American embassy, ​​he heard the first gunshots coming from the palace. Lee Beom-jin went to the Russian Embassy via the American Embassy and informed them that the palace was surrounded by Japanese troops and requested relief.

Sabatin's testimony shows that the night before the incident (October 6), the military training division and Japanese soldiers gathered in front of the palace and made a fuss. Moreover, he had previously received information from the Chinese that there would be a conspiracy that night. However, they were too easy-going and did not come up with a plan, which eventually led to the palace being surrounded.

Infiltration of Gyeongbokgung Palace

At around 4:30 in the morning that day, about 250 to 300 Korean soldiers of the Military Training Division who had been trained by Japanese instructors discussed something while being led by 4 to 5 Japanese instructors. After that, a Korean man shouted several times to open the gate. The guards and police officers guarding Gwanghwamun resited. When Heungseon Daewongun arrived in front of Gwanghwamun around 5 a.m., the 3rd company of the Japanese garrison, which had been waiting in advance, handed them a long ladder prepared in advance, and Japanese police officers climbed over the wall and unlatched the bolt. When Gwanghwamun was opened, Japanese troops and Korean guards rushed towards Gyeongbokgung Palace, screaming. Japanese ronin and Koreans crossed Gwanghwamun and arrived in front of Gyeongbokgung Palace. The Hullyeondae soldiers led by Woo, and the Japanese Legation Security Group led by Lieutenant Commander Niiro Tokisuke climbed over the palace walls and opened fire on the palace guards, the guards threw away their weapons and military uniforms and deserted their posts.[6][7] Meanwhile, the Japanese and their collaborators broke through three gates: Gwanghwamun in the south, Chunsaengmun in the northeast, and Chuseongmun in the northwest.

The entrance to Gyeongbokgung Palace was guarded by about 500 palace guards under the command of Hong Gye-hun and General William McEntyre Dye. Hong drew his sword and scolded at the division, "Traitors" and "Who are you? Get away!" At this shout, the Japanese ronin and division paused for a moment.[6][7] But the Japanese Ronin and Korean troops, who knew of their presence in advance, easily repelled the guards. Dye and Hong, who suffered numerous casualties, fled with their guards to Geoncheong Palace, and the Ronin and Korean guides were able to easily enter Gyeongbokgung Palace. It was easy to get to Geunjeongjeon, but after a gunfight with the soldiers guarding Geunjeongjeon, Geunjeongjeon was breached, so they were able to get to Geoncheong Palace.

Upon hearing the cry of Lieutenant Colonel Hong Kye-hun, the Queen changed into court lady attire to disguise herself among the rest of the court ladies and hid before the Japanese arrived at Okhoru.[8] It is said that the empress had asked the Crown Prince if he was safe before she was killed.[9]

Sabatin, a Russian construction engineer, was protecting King Gojong when he witnessed the actions of the Japanese in the palace yard. According to the report by Justice Department official Kwon Jae-hyeong (commonly known as the “Kwon Jae-hyung Report”), in order to distract the attention of the ronin and help Empress Myeongseong escape, Gojong tried to divert their attention away from the Queen, to have her escape the palace, by putting himself in front of their search but this led them to beat the court ladies and threaten the Crown Prince at sword point to make him talk on the whereabouts of his mother. But her son did not disclose her location and made it safely to where his father stood to which he watched the queen run as a Japanese soldier followed her down a path with a sword. The wife of the Crown Prince, Crown Princess Consort Min (later Empress Sunmyeong), was dragged downstairs while she was with a few court ladies, had her hair cut, and was beaten by the soldiers.[10][9]

Knowing that there was no queen at Gyeongbokgung Palace, the ronin and his Joseon collaborators headed to Geoncheong Palace, north of Gyeongbokgung Palace. The palace was defended by about 300 to 400 Capital Guards led by Lieutenant Colonel Hong Gye-hun, An Kyŏng-su, Major Hyŏn Hŭng-t'aek, and General Dye.[5][6][7] They engaged in a firefight with the Capital Guards and pushed forward. The guards were unable to defeat the Japanese army as they were deprived of their superior weapons during the Japanese occupation of Gyeongbokgung Palace. Hong Gye-hun was shot six times and stabbed with a sword and the rest of the guards retreated.[11]

Assassinating the Queen
The location of the assassination: Okhoru Pavilion in Gyeongbokgung

The ronin to proceed to Okhoru (옥호루; 玉壺樓), within Geoncheonggung unopposed. The ronin approached Geoncheong Palace, where Empress Myeongseong lived, formed a formation, surrounded Hapmun (閤門), and stood guard. The ronin entered the hall and began searching the secret room, and Heungseon Daewongun waited next to Gangnyeongjeon behind Geunjeongjeon. The soldiers of the military training division rested in the front yard of Geoncheong-gun and did not participate in the assassination of the empress. Once they found the Empress and her maidens, they killed her and her maidens brutally.[12][13][5] It was said that Minister Yi Kyŏng-chik (이경직; 李耕稙) outstretched his arms in attempt to protect the queen but it only gave away the clue as to who she was, leading to his death and the queen's.[9] It is said that Empress Sunmyeong, the empress' daughter-in-law, was a witness to her assassination as she stood in front attempting to protect her. She later died due to her depression.

The corpse of the Empress, and the two court ladies that followed her ill-fate, was moved to the Daeguk Pine Tree Forest where her body was violated and then drenched in oil to be burned and buried.[5][8][14][lower-alpha 2][15][13] As news reached that Japan was involved in the assassination, an investigation was conducted in October; only a single finger bone was found within the ash and sand[10] so it made identifying body parts hard when a eunuch reported, and gave them back to Emperor Gojong.[16][9] The title of the queen was also given back.[17][14][18]

Historian of Japan Peter Duus has called this assassination a "hideous event, crudely conceived and brutally executed".[19] American Japanese historian Donald Keene called the queen "an arrogant and corrupt woman", but described the murder as "unspeakably barbaric".[2]

Gojong's The Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty do not have a Japanese name. The names written are: Jeong Zun (2nd Battalion Officer), Yi Doo (1st Battalion Officer), Yi Chung (Senior 2nd Battalion), Yi Chun (Deputy Commander), Gong Yu Zhen (at that time police officer).

An eyewitness account
Alleged killers (ronin) of Queen Min posing in front of Hanseong sinbo building in Seoul (1895)

Crown Prince Sunjong reported that he saw Korean troops led by Woo Beom-seon at the site of the assassination, and accused Woo as the "Foe of Mother". In addition to his accusation, Sunjong sent two assassins to kill Woo, an effort that succeeded in Hiroshima, Japan, in 1903. By then, Woo had married a Japanese woman, and had sired Woo Jang-choon, later to become an acclaimed botanist and agricultural scientist.

Lieutenant Colonel Yi Hak-gyun wrote that some of the assassins wore military uniform while others were in their civilian clothes. Also he reported that the Capital Guards were not able to stop the assassins from coming.[20]

In 2005, professor Kim Rekho (김려춘; 金麗春) of the Russian Academy of Sciences came across a written account of the incident by a Russian architect Afanasy Seredin-Sabatin in the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire (AVPRI).[21] Seredin-Sabatin was in the service of the Korean government, working with the American general William McEntyre Dye who was also under contract to the Korean government also witnessed this tragedy from inside the palace while leading the Capital Guards. Sabatin and Dye were both assaulted by Japanese soldiers, and later gave testimony exposing the Japanese atrocities to the world. In April, Kim made a request to the Myongji University Library LG Collection to make the document public. On 11 May 2005 the document was made public.

Almost five years before the document's release in South Korea, a translated copy was in circulation in the United States, having been released by the Center for Korean Research of Columbia University on 6 October 1995 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Eulmi Incident.[22]

In the account, Seredin-Sabatin recorded:

The courtyard where the Queen (Consort)'s wing was located was filled with Japanese, perhaps as many as 20 or 25 men. They were dressed in peculiar gowns and were armed with sabres, some of which were openly visible. ... While some Japanese troops were rummaging around in every corner of the palace and in the various annexes, others burst into the queen's wing and threw themselves upon the women they found there. ... I ... continued to observe the Japanese turning things inside out in the queen's wing. Two Japanese grabbed one of the court ladies, pulled her out of the house, and ran down the stairs dragging her along behind them. ... Moreover one of the Japanese repeatedly asked me in English, "Where is the queen? Point the queen out to us!" ... While passing by the main Throne Hall, I noticed that it was surrounded shoulder to shoulder by a wall of Japanese soldiers and officers, and Korean mandarins, but what was happening there was unknown to me.[22]

Perpetrators

Groups
  • Japanese Legation Security Group (公使館守備隊), a joint military unit (Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy) who provided security for the Japanese legation. It was commanded by legation minister Miura Gorō.[23] After the assassination, Lieutenant Commander Niiro Tokisuke (新納時亮), an IJN Officer of the Japanese Legation Security Group wrote a report on the assassination: "the King is safe and secure; the Queen has been eliminated (国王無事王妃殺害)"[6]
  • Japanese Legation Security Police Officers, commanded by legation minister Miura Gorō and led by MOFA Police Chief Inspector (外務省警部) Hagiwara Hidejiro (萩原秀次郎) at the scene. The Japanese Legation Security Police Officers wore plain clothes during the Eulmi Incident.
  • Three battalions of the Hullyeondae, commanded by Major Woo Beom-seon (1st battalion), Major Yi Doo-hwang (2nd battalion), and Major Yi Jin-ho (3rd battalion). Hullyeondae commander Lieutenant Colonel Hong Kye-hun did not notice the betrayal by his officers and was killed in action by his own men.
  • At least four Imperial Japanese Army Keijō garrison (京城守備隊) officers who served as military advisors and instructors of the Hullyeondae, including Second Lieutenant Miyamoto Taketaro (宮本竹太郞). The IJA Keijō Garrison was commanded by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, but Second Lieutenant Miyamoto's crew joined in the Eulmi Incident without permission from the IJA General Staff Office.
  • More than four dozen ronin disguised as Japanese officials, including Adachi Kenzō. They took the role of a vanguard. According to a secret report by Ishizuka Eizo, most of them originally came from Kumamoto Prefecture and were armed with katanas and handguns.[24] (On 3 December 1965, Japanese politician Kuroyanagi Akira (黒柳明) mentioned part of Ishizuka Eizo's secret report in the Special Committee on Japan-Korea Treaty (日韓条約等特別委員会), House of Councillors).[25]

Individuals

In Japan, 56 men were charged. All were acquitted by the Hiroshima court due to a lack of evidence.[26] The factual findings of the Hiroshima investigating court were early translated into English and printed. They are to be found in circulation in scholarly works by 1905.[27]

They included (among others):[28]

  • Viscount Miura Gorō, Japanese legation minister.
  • Okamoto Ryūnosuke, a legation official[29] and former Japanese Army officer
  • Hozumi Torakurō, businessman
  • Kokubun Shōtarō, Japanese legation officials
  • Chief Inspector Hagiwara Hidejiro, Officer Watanabe Takajiro (渡辺 鷹次郎), Officer Oda Toshimitsu (小田俊光), Officer Naruse Kishiro (成瀬 喜四郎), Officer Yokoo Yujiro (横尾 勇次郎), Officer Sakai Masutaro (境 益太郎), Officer Shiraishi Yoshitaro (白石 由太郎), Officer Kinowaki Yoshinori (木脇祐則), Japanese legation officials (Japanese Legation Security Police)[29]
  • Sugimura Fukashi,[30] a second Secretary of the Japanese legation,[31] Legation minister Miura's inner circle. In his autobiography "Meiji 17~18 Year, The Record of the torment in Korea (明治廿七八年在韓苦心録)", he unilaterally claims that the Eulmi Incident was his own scheme, not Miura's.
  • Adachi Kenzo, former Samurai, editor of Japanese newspaper in Korea, Kanjō Shimpō (漢城新報, also called Hanseong Shinbo in Korean)[32]
  • Lieutenant Colonel Kusunose Yukihiko, an artillery officer in the Imperial Japanese Army and Military Attaché at the Japanese legation in Korea, Legation minister Miura's inner circle.
  • Kunitomo Shigeaki,[33] one of the original Seikyōsha ("Society for Political Education") members[34]
  • Shiba Shirō[30] (柴四朗), former samurai, private secretary to the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce of Japan, and writer who studied political economy at the Wharton School and Harvard University.[35] He had a close connection with Japanese legation minister Miura Gorō because Shiba contributed Miura becoming a resident legation minister in Korea.
  • Sase Kumatetsu, a physician[35]
  • Terasaki Yasukichi (寺崎泰吉), a medicine peddler[36]
  • Nakamura Tateo (中村楯雄)
  • Horiguchi Kumaichi; in 2021, a letter was found which was sent by him to his friend which writes about how the assassination went down, mentioning how easy it was.[37]
  • Ieiri Kakitsu (家入嘉吉)
  • Kikuchi Kenjō (菊池 謙讓)
  • Hirayama Iwahiko
  • Ogihara Hidejiro (荻原秀次郎)
  • Kobayakawa Hideo (小早川秀雄), editor in chief of Kanjō Shimpō[38]
  • Sasaki Masayuki
  • Isujuka Eijoh[39]

In Korea, King Gojong declared that the following were the 'Eulmi Four Traitors (을미사적; 乙未四賊; Eulmisajeok)' on 11 February 1896:

New pieces of information appeared in 2021 in the form of private letters written by a Japanese consular officer to his best friend in Japan. Eight letters (apparently traded for the stamps on the envelopes) were sent by Kumaichi Horiguchi to Teisho Takeishi detailing Horiguchi's part in the slaying.[40]

Aftermath

In 2005 archive research from Japan revealed that the Emperor Meiji was personally informed in January 1896 as to the slaying of the queen consort by the Japanese representative. The report had been sent off after the assassination and arrived shortly before the trial in Japan of the Japanese individuals involved in the killing. Some see the subsequent acquittal of the Japanese accused as an attempt by the Emperor Meiji to suppress information about the incident.[41]

The historian Homer B. Hulbert writing in 1905 was in high personal standing with the Joseon Emperor, and was posthumously honoured many years later for national services to Korea. He surmised that the Japanese government in Japan only achieved knowledge of the queen's death after it had occurred but that, despite clear recited evidence and findings of a detailed murderous plot by its representatives in Korea, the Japanese court investigating in 1896 treated the events as "official" and therefore not matters of individual responsibility. He theorised that the government of Japan were possibly only to blame for having appointed a man of Count Miura's temperament as their representative in Joseon. The arrest of Miura and his Japanese conspirators was sufficient in itself to destabilise their Korean followers' positions.[42]

The Gabo Reform and the assassination of Empress Myeongseong generated a backlash against the Japanese presence in Korea; it caused some Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, to form over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. The assassination is also credited as a significant event in the life of Syngman Rhee, the future first president of South Korea.

The assassination of Empress Myeongseong, and the subsequent backlash, played a role in the assassination of influential statesman and Prince Itō Hirobumi. Itō Hirobumi was a four-time prime minister of Japan, former Resident-General of Korea, and then President of the Privy Council of Japan. Empress Myeongseong's assassination was the first of 15 reasons given by the Korean independence activist An Jung-geun, who is regarded as a hero in Korea, in defense of his assassination of Ito Hirobumi.[43]

After the assassination, King Gojong and the Crown Prince (later Emperor Sunjong) accepted refuge in the Russian legation on 11 February 1896. He ordered the deaths of pro-Japanese officials such as the Four Eulmi Traitors ending the Gabo Reform.[44][45][46] Gojong disbanded the Hullyeondae for participating in the assassination and Capital Guards in August 1895 for failing to stop the Japanese.[47] However, In 1897, Gojong, yielding to rising pressure from both overseas and the demands of the Independence Association-led public opinion, returned to Gyeongungung (modern-day Deoksugung). There, he proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire.

Apology

In May 2005, 84-year-old Tatsumi Kawano (川野 龍巳), the grandson of Kunitomo Shigeaki, paid his respects to Empress Myeongseong at her tomb in Namyangju, Gyeonggi, South Korea.[48][49] He apologized to Empress Myeongseong's tomb on behalf of his grandfather, however, the apology was not well received as the descendants of Empress Myeongseong pointed out that the apology had to be made on a governmental level.[48]

Since 2009, several South Korean non-governmental organizations have been trying to sue the Japanese government for their documented complicity in the murder of Queen Min. "Japan has not made an official apology or repentance 100 years after it obliterated the Korean people for 35 years through the 1910 Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty," the statement said. The lawsuit will be filed if the Japanese government does not accept their demands that the Japanese government issue a special statement on 15 August offering the emperor's apology and mentioning whether it will release related documents on the murder case.[50]

See also

Notes
  1. At that time, Japan had called Empress Myeongseong a "Vixen" (Japanese: 女狐), and the code name for the operation was called “Fox Hunting” (狐狩り)
  2. The allegation that Empress Myeongseong's dead body was humiliated by the Japanese is mentioned in the secret report of Ezo Ishizuka in Kim Jin-myeong's, "The Kidnapping Case of the Crown Princess". Also mentioned on page 385 of Lim Joong-ung's book.

References
  1. Underwood, Lillias Horton (1904). Fifteen Years Among the Top-knots: Or, Life in Korea. pp. 24, 89–90.
  2. Keene, Donald (2002). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912. Columbia University Press. p. 517. doi:10.7312/keen12340.
  3. Emery Pan, "The Murder of Empress Myeongseong of Korea", The Gale Review (2022).
  4. Encyclopaedia Korea its land, people and culture of all ages (1960) Hakwon-sa Ltd under Opening of Yi Chosun (1875-1910), After the Sino-Japanese War, Russian Influence at page 80-81
  5. (in Korean) 을미사변 乙未事變 (in Korean) Naver Encyclopedia
  6. Jeong Ji-Hwan (3 June 2002). "명성황후, 시해 전 '능욕'당했다" 한일월드컵과 107년전 '을미사변' (in Korean). OhmyNews.
  7. "을미사변(乙未事變)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean).
  8. Hwang Won-gab, Pg. 616–617
  9. Lucy Bird, Isabella (1898). Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Vicissitudes and Position of the Country, Volume 1. John Murray, 1905. pp. 65–66.
  10. PhD, History; J. D., University of Washington School of Law; B. A., History. "Biography of Queen Min, Korean Empress". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  11. Park Kyung-Ryong. "우리시대 광화문 수난사" [Gwanghwamun Passion History in our times]. sejongking (in Korean).
  12. Park, Jong-hyo (박종효) (1 January 2002). "일본인 폭도가 가슴을 세 번 짓밟고 일본도로 난자했다" [Japanese mob tramped down her breast three times and violently stabbed her with a katana]. Sindonga 新東亞. pp. 472–485.
  13. Kim, Tae-ik (25 August 2009). "The Sobering Truth of Empress Myeongseong's Killing". english.chosun.com. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  14. Lim Jong-eung, Pg. 385–387
  15. "왕후가 곤녕합에서 묘시에 붕서하다". 조선왕조실록, 고종 32년. 33: Artice 1. 20 August 1895.
  16. 《Empress Myeongseong and the Korean Empire》, Pg. 58–60
  17. 윤, 덕한 (19 August 1999). ""민비는 외세 끌어들인 장본인"". 《뉴스플러스》: 64–65.
  18. 민왕후의 위호를 회복시키고 조령을 격소하다 조선왕조실록, 고종 33권, 32년(1895 을미 / 청 광서(光緖) 21년) 10월 10일(정축) 1번째 기사에서
  19. Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), p. 111.
  20. The Dong-a Ilbo (2002). Shindonga (in Korean). pp. 478–480.
  21. "Account Describes Empress Myongsong's Assassination". The Korea Times. 12 May 2005.
  22. Aleksey Seredin-Sabatin (1895). "Testimony of the Russian citizen Seredin-Sabatin, in the service of the Korean court, who was on duty the night of 26 September". Columbia University. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012.
  23. Reconsideration on the Murder case of Korea's Queen (朝鮮王妃殺害事件の再考) (PDF). January 2007.
  24. "憲政史編纂会収集文書目録". 五四六、 朝鮮王妃事件関係資料. 9 October 1895.
  25. "第50回国会 参議院 日韓条約等特別委員会 第9号 昭和40年12月3日". 3 December 1965. Archived from the original on 6 April 2021.
  26. "Descendants of Korean Queen's Assassins Apologize". The Chosun Ilbo. 9 May 2005. Archived from the original on 21 June 2006.
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  28. Han Young-woo (한영우) (20 October 2001). Empress Myeongseong and Korean Empire (명성황후와 대한제국) (in Korean). Hyohyeong Publishing (효형출판). ISBN 89-86361-57-4.
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