Bed hangings

Bed hanging fabrics were decorated and edged with fringes and borders of lace and passementerie. These were carefully described in the inventories of aristocrats and the wealthy. "Passamayne", a variety of bobbin woven lace was made of silver and gold Venice thread to trim the beds of Henry VIII and James V of Scotland.[21] Bess of Hardwick had a canopy bed with six curtains, "striped" with gold and silver, and "layde with gold lace about the edges, and a gold twist downe the seams and fringed about with golde fringe".[22] The curtains of a bed owned by Anne of Denmark in the first decade of the 17th century were made of fabric in panes of alternating colour, the seams covered with lace of green silk with gold and silver thread.[22] In Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1643, Elizabeth Glover owned 11 beds, one with curtains of "Cheney" glazed worsted wool with "a deep silke silk fring[e] on the vallance, & a smaller on the curtaines", and the counterpane was embellished with strips of green lace.[23]

Aristocrats like Elizabeth Preston, Countess of Desmond of Kilkenny Castle, bought stocks of gold and silver thread for passementerie, which may have been made up to their specification by specialist weavers.[24] After 1660, the words "galloon" or "loom lace" for woven lace applied to bed curtains replaced the older term "passamayne". Curtains were also decorated with tapes and ribbons.[25]

Embroidery was used to decorate bed hangings, with some of the finest embroidery produced in Caen, in France. Elaborately decorated bed hangings were known in medieval and renaissance France as courtepointerie, a term now associated with quilts. These sumptuous bed hangings were purchased by the nobility and royalty.[26] In 1662, during the reign of Louis XIV, the royal Gobelins workshops were established. Although better known for their tapestries, there and at Versailles, professional embroiderers worked on royal commissions of bed hangings based on the designs of painters. [27] During the Renaissance in France, bed valences were embroidered with scenes from the Bible, mythology, and allegory.[28] Many bed hangings were made from velvet or satin and had applique interlacing and scroll designs. These motifs full of movement, as well as others that were delicate and refined in the 16th century were followed in the next by a more monumental style produced by professionals. Those of the highest quality were made by professionals.[29] Bed hangings were highly valued possessions, and records from the Middle Ages through the 1700s indicate that they were their owners' most prized possessions.[30]

Queen's bedroom, Château de Blois, Loir-et-Cher, Centre, France

In Italy, embroidered bed hangings had been made in Palermo since the 12th century.[26] Professional workers embroidered padded gold threads on velvet or satin, used braid-outlined appliqué, sometimes with silk embroidery for use as furnishings such as valences.[31] In the second half of the 17th century, lighter domestic embroidered work became more colorful, freer, and naturalistic.[32]

In 1512, Bona Sforza of Aragon married King Zygmunt I of Poland. As part of her trousseau, she brought a four poster marriage bed with 23 hangings attached to the canopy. One of the most expensive "was made of silver material with a gold border, woven with the stylized inflorescence of artichokes."[33]

In England, Elizabeth of York, the wife of Henry VII, employed an embroiderer called Robynet to work on her "riche bedde" and other works in 1502. Robynet had a team of four men and three female embroiderers who were paid wages and board money to lodge in Richmond Palace for seven weeks. The account mentions black crewel wool used to "purfulle" or purfle around the roses, and tawny thread used to lay embroidered work on red satin edges. Making the shapes of roses and clouds involved the use of searing candles. Robynet also used round and flat gold thread.[34]

The most economical bed hangings were plain or mechanically decorated. Crewel embroidery with wool was used to decorate bed hangings in England and the colonial US from the mid 1600s to the mid 1700s.[35]

American crewel valence, possibly from Connecticut, 1760–1770, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The designs used in England were more dense than the open designs found in colonial America, and many used a wider range of stitches. Thread was hard to get in Colonial America, and so it was not used where it would not show. Colonial bed hangings used stitches where most of the wool is visible on the front, and not wasted on the back. Such stitches include economy (Romanian) stitch,[36] flat stitch, herringbone, buttonhole, running (outline), and French and bullion knot stitches. Regardless, the work involved a great deal of time and effort, as it required decorating large expanses of fabric.[20]

For bed hangings decorated at home, the colors of the embroidery depended on what was available for use, or what could be dyed. Those who had access to a full range of colors could embroider realistic floral designs, while others would select or be limited to a monochromatic color scheme. Blue and rose and blue and white were popular in the American colonies, with the blue dye coming from the household's indigo pot.[37] The designs used varied with the country and the time period. Elizabethan designs had scrolling vines and animal patterns, Jacobean designs might be predominantly leaves. About the turn of the 17th century, chinoiserie design elements became popular. By the mid 1700s, designs were more natural and included pictorial elements, such as animals.[38]

Bed hanging worked with crewel embroidery, Auckland Museum

Embroidered silk bed hangings, China, c. 1760–1770, Rijksmuseum

In Great Britain, an embroidered valance made for Colin Campbell of Glenorchy and Katherine Ruthven including their initials and depicting Adam and Eve, is now at the Burrell Collection in Glasgow. They married in 1550 and the valance was used at Balloch. It was worked with silk threads on linen canvas, probably by a professional embroiderer in Scotland.[42][43] The Oxburgh Hangings, hanging in Oxburgh Hall, were embroidered by Mary, Queen of Scots and Bess of Hardwick between 1570 and approximately 1585.[44]

In 1597 the German traveller Paul Hentzner was shown a tester at Hampton Court which Anne Boleyn had embroidered as a gift for Henry VIII, this is not known to have survived.[45][46] The Burrell Collection has a cream silk taffeta valance decorated with black velvet cutwork including the initials of Henry and Anne Boleyn, and their emblems of acorns and honeysuckle.[47][48] The Tudor valance was preserved at Kimberly Hall by the Wodehouse family, who were relations of Anne Boleyn.[49] A silk fabric-hung bed for Mary of Guise in a style of 1540 was recreated from inventory evidence in 2010 for display at Stirling Castle.[50]

In the United States, the only complete set of embroidered bed hangings are those made by Mary Bulman, most likely in the 1730s, which are housed in the Old Gaol Museum in York, Maine.[51] This set includes "four curtains, a coverlet, a headcloth, tester, outer valences, and inner valences."[52] These inner valences contained an embroidered poem by Isaac Watts, "Meditation in a Grove." These valences would hang inside the bed curtains, where they could be read while in bed. When Mary's husband died in 1745, his probate inventory listed the value of the bed hangings as 20 pounds, which was the same amount as a 10-acre piece of land also in the inventory.[52]

A set of bed hangings donated to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston by Samuel Bradstreet, a descendant of the early American poet Anne Bradstreet, were worked in crewel in a pattern of large floral designs, and were likely made in the second quarter of the 1700s.[53]

The New Elizabethan Embroidery Project created a new set of bed hangings in the Elizabethan style for the 16th century bed in the Grand Tudor chamber in Sulgrave Manor, the ancestral home of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Completed in 2007 by stitchers in both the US and the UK, the designs were inspired by motifs and symbols found elsewhere in the house.[54]

The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam has an almost complete set of 18th-century Chinese silk embroidered bed hangings, missing only the tester and the headboard. The designs include peacocks, flowering vines, foliage, butterflies, and vases of flowers. Created for the export trade, the set is extremely luxurious and was designed for a state bed, one meant to be seen. [55]