Char Bouba war

A Zawaya scholar, born as Ashfaga but also known as Awbek, began to gain prominence amongst the Zawaya, eventually being known by just his title: Nasr ad-Din. Nasr had begun his preaching by calling for repentance, but as his movement grew amongst his tribe, the Banu Dayman, and amongst wider Zawaya society, Nasr began calling for the formation of an Islamic state. The state that Nasr advocated would be above tribal and ethnic tensions and would resemble the ideal society of the early Caliphs. Nasr went by numerous self-appointed titles, such as Sayyiduna (our master), Imamund (our Imam), and Mushi al-Din (he who spreads the faith), before finally settling on Nasir al-Din (protector of the faith). Nasr demanded the loyalty of all of the Zawaya, forcing every Zawaya leader to swear allegiance to him. His government was composed of himself, a Vizier, and 4 Qadi's, and tasked itself with enforcing order in the southern Sudan, known as Qibla. Nasr set himself the goals of fighting those who he believed had neglected Islam and oppressed Muslims, uniting the various groups of the region in a single state, and creating a new and divinely guided order.[11]

Nasr al-Din began his jihad by invading Futa Tooro and the various Wolof states beyond the Senegal river. By focusing on the states south of the Senegal Nasr avoided an early confrontation with the powerful Hassan. Nasr's focus on these states also gained him control of the entrepôts for the gum trade along the Senegal. French trade on the Senegal had seen large growth since the beginning of the century, and thus control of the entrepôts strengthened Nasr financially while offsetting Hassanoya control of trade to the ports on the Saharan coast.[11]

Nasr's movement, intending to abolish both the slave-trading dynasties of the local kingdoms and the large-scale export of slaves (though not slavery itself), became a revolution, with local Muslims and the peasantry flocking to him and overthrowing their traditional leaders.[5] In Futa Toro the population rose massively against the rule of the Denianke satigis, and the marabouts quickly gained control. Strengthened with Torodbe recruits, Nasr's army overwhelmed and killed the brak of Waalo, Fara Kumba Mbodj, replacing him with a puppet, Yerim Kode. In Cayor a lingeer converted to Islam, joined the marabout party, and helped to overthrow and kill the reigning damel. When he in turn was executed for not following Koranic precepts, however, she and her faction within the ruling class looked to the king of Saloum for armed support against the Muslims.[12]

Nasr then turned his attention to strengthening the rule of his Islamic state, and imposed the zakat on the tributary tribes north of the Senegal river. One of these tributary tribes, the Bubba, called on Hadi, the Emir of Trarza, to help him resist Nasr ad-Din. Tradition maintains that the war between Nasr ad-Din and Trarza broke out as a result of the Bubba's call for help from Trarza, resulting in the war being called Shurbubba, or "the war of Bubba."[11]

The Hassan were united in their opposition to Nasr.[11] Most of the burden of fighting fell to the Emirate of Trarza, although the Emirate of Brakna sent Trarza reinforcements and helped immobilise Zawaya in their own regions to prevent them from joining the forces of Nasr. Most Zawaya of the Southern Sahara sided with Nasr, although some remained neutral, and others supported the Hassan, with a Zawaya scholar from Shinqit issuing a fatwa against Nasr, stating that he was not a Caliph and had no right to impose the zakat. This fatwa led to Hãdi, the Trarza chief, sending troops to seize animals that had already been sent as zakat.[13]

The ensuing conflict saw the forces of Nasr and those of Hãdi clash in three battles; the first near the port of Portendick and the second near the salt mines of Awlil positioned just north of the mouth of the Senegal river. The Zawaya were victorious in all three of the battles, but Nasr was killed in the final battle in August 1674 along with many of his closest followers.[13]

Following Nasr's death the Zawaya elected al-Faqih al-Amin. al-Amin had been born Sidi al-Fadil, and was descended from Zawaya employed by the Hassan chiefs. It was therefore hoped that al-Amin would be able to bring the Hassan to terms, who having been beaten in three battles, were ready to negotiate. An agreement was reached between the Hassan and the Zawaya whereby the Hassan would recognise the spiritual authority of the Zawaya Imam, and in return the Imam would give up all political claims, including his ability to levy zakat. However the majority of the Zawaya, who still followed the militarism of Nasr ad-Din, were opposed to any compromising with the Hassan, and deposed al-Amin. The Zawaya elected Qadi Uthman as his replacement. Uthman had previously served as Nasr al-Din's Vizier and had been one of his closest companions.[13]

Uthman revived the policy of militarism and non-negotiation with the Hassan. He also reintroduced the zakat, which he demanded from weaker tribes and factions. These weaker groups resisted, joining together and seeking the support of Hadi. Hadi's forces then proceeded to wipe out the Zawaya's tax collecting expedition. Uthman was in turn killed fighting the Wolof, and was succeeded by a string of 3 Imams including Munir ad-Din, Nasir ad-Din's brother. The Imamate was eventually defeated by the combined forces of the Hassan and the rebelling tribes.[13]

In Senegal the marabout movement had brought practically all commerce at Saint-Louis to a standstill. As the Zawaya grip loosened, the French found opportunities to militarily reinforce the deposed monarchies. With their support Yerim Kode betrayed the Muslims, and soon Jolof, Cayor, and Futa Toro were also back in the hands of their former rulers.[14]

As a result of their absolute defeat the Zawaya relinquished all claims to political or military authority and paid tribute to the Hassan for their protection.[13] Hassani warriors were given the right to drink the milk from Zawaya herds and access to a third of the water from Zawaya wells. Zawaya also had to accommodate passing Hassani for three days. The Zawaya were also broken up as a group amongst the Hassani, with each Hassani group having its own Zawaya. In general however the conditions endured by the Zawaya differed little from those experienced before the war. Although defeated, the war had the result of adding militancy to the Zawaya religious teaching, which in turn spread to neighbouring countries in the Sudan.[15]

The war ended in defeat for the Berber tribes, and they were from that point on forced to surrender their arms and submit to the warrior Arab tribes, to whom they paid the horma tributary tax. They would remain in roles as either exploited semi-sedentary agriculturalists and fishermen (znaga tribes), or, higher up on the social ladder, as religious (marabout or zawiya) tribes. This division between Hassane Arab warriors and Berber marabouts, plus the subordinate znaga, existed in Mauritania up until the French colonization, when France imposed itself militarily on all tribes, and so broke the power of the Hassane. Still, the traditional roles of the tribes remain important socially in these areas.[16]

Even more important was that the Arab victory brought about widespread cultural and linguistic arabization, with Berber tribes surrendering their Tamazight and other Berber tongues to the Arabic language, in the form of the Hassaniya dialect of the Beni Hassan. It is still spoken as the main language in Moorish Mauritania and Western Sahara, as well as in parts of Morocco and Algeria.

With their victory the Trarza and Brakna Moors became active and permanent fixtures of the Senegambian political mix, exerting constant military pressure on their neighbors to the south and dominating the lucrative gum trade.[17][14] With the traditional Wolof and Fula aristocracy re-entrenched, the slave trade boomed and wars and raiding between the kingdoms became endemic. The lower classes bore the brunt of both the attacks from Mauritania and the slave raids, and increasingly turned to Islam as a potential political counterweight to the established regimes.[8][18]

In the wake of their defeat, some Torodbe migrated south to found the state of Bundu and others continued on to the Futa Jallon.[19][18] The Marabout war inspired an increasingly militant tone of Islamic preaching and created links between Berber and Torodbe groups, both of which helped set in motion and invigorate internal conflicts that would eventually lead to the Fula jihads.[15][14]

• Barry, Boubacar (1998). Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Fage, J.D.; Gray, Richard; Oliver, Roland Anthony (2003). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20413-5.
• Gomez, Michael A. (2002-07-04). Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52847-4. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
• Gray, Richard (1975-09-18). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20413-2. Retrieved 2013-02-10.
• Klein, Martin A. (2005). "Futa-Tooro: Early Nineteenth Century". Encyclopedia of African History. Vol. 1. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 541. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
• "Overview of Fuuta Tooro". Jamtan. Retrieved 2013-02-17.