Chera Perumals of Makotai

• An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography had believed that the "Second/Later Chera Empire", or "Kulasekhara Empire" was a highly centralized monarchy (unitary or imperial state model, emphasizing centralized administration).[2][12][13] Modern scholars have accused early Kerala historians of inventing a "Second Chera Empire" to rival the glories of the imperial Cholas.[14]
• However, critical research in the late 1960s and early 1970s offered a major corrective to this (a monarchy supported by a Brahmin oligarchy).[12][2] The theories of a Chera "empire", propounded by the early writers, were rejected.[13] It was also discovered that the Chera kings did not bear the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara".[13] Some recent scholarship also proposes a gradual transition from 'a monarchy' to a 'ritual monarchy'. They question the general inclination to treat the three centuries of Chera Perumal rule as a "single historical block".[15]
• Suggestions pointing to the other extreme, that the king at Kodungallur had only a "ritual sovereignty" and the actual political power rested with "a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy" has also emerged.[2][16] It describes "a fragmented array of local chiefdoms ... held in check by a loose Tamil hegemony".[14]

"The Cera kingdom was not a strong, absolute monarchy by any means, but rather a confederation of lords and powerful Brahmin communities under the mantle of the Perumal...Therefore, the portrayal of the post Cera period as a time of major political decentralization attributes a false centrality to the Cera period itself..."

— Donald R. Davis Jr.,

According to the third model, the power of the Perumal was restricted to the capital Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur).[5] His kingship was only ritual and remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains (the udaiyavar) exercised politically and militarily. Brahmins also possessed huge authority in religious and social subjects ('ritual sovereignty combined with a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy').[5][16]

Remains of the Thillaisthanam inscription (9th century CE, Aditya Chola)

Thiruvanchikkulam Shiva Temple (northern entrance gateway)

Fragmentary laterite walls, outside Thrikulasekharapuram Temple, Kodungallur (10th-11th centuries)

The Chera Perumals of Makotai claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-Pallava (early historic) south India.[7] There are clear indications as to how different branches of the Chera family managed different centres of power in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the early Tamil poems.[18]

The Chera/Perumal dynasty introduced rule through kingship in Kerala (a departure from the early historic system of clan-based societies).[3] It is speculated that there was little economic pressure on the Kerala rulers for territorial conquest, the region being naturally rich and obtaining income from the trade with the Middle East.[19] The Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas.[9] The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East).[9]

"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."

— Romila Thapar, [20]

The Perumal kingship remained nominal compared with the power that local chieftains, the so-called "nattu-udaiyavar" or "nadu-vazhumavar", exercised politically and militarily.[13][5] Chiefdoms under Chera Perumal rule, known as "nadus", are roughly comparable to the "rashtra" under the Rashtrakutas and "padi" under the Cholas.[13] These chieftains wielded militaristic authority over their country (even over the Brahmin temples and settlements in the nadu).[13] The udaiyavar chieftains were liable to serve the Chera Perumal in battles (against invading Pandyas and Cholas[5]) and the chiefdoms functioned as revenue collection units for the Chera kingdom.[13] The Chera Perumal only held direct authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake, including the port of Kodungallur.[13] Koyil Adhikarikal/Al Koyil, the Chera royal present in a chiefdom, collected regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai) from the chiefdoms for the Perumal at Kodungallur.[13]

Bhakti saints Cheraman Perumal Nayanar and Kulasekhara Alvar are generally identified as Perumal kings of Kerala.[6][2] Shankaracharya, founder of the Vedanta advaita, is also traced to 8th century Kerala.[2] Copper-plate charters of the Perumals show grants to Jewish and Christian merchants of West Asia.[19] The West Asian Muslims had also established themselves as traders in the kingdom.[9] Merchant guilds such as manigramam, and anjuvannam were active in the Perumal kingdom.[21] The origin of the Malayalam language is also dated to the Chera Perumal period in Kerala.[21] Temple architecture style known as "Kerala-Dravida" can be seen from the 11th century CE.[22]

In the 12th century, the Perumal kingdom was dissolved into several local powers. The Perumal dynasty was succeeded in south Kerala (Venad) by the Kulasekhara dynasty (whose kings were also known as the Cheras[23]).[24] In other parts of Kerala, chieftains of Kolathunad, Kozhikode and Kochi succeeded the Perumals.[5]

Organs of the Perumal state

Jewish copper plates of Cochin (plate I, side I).

Chola coin of king Rajendra, with legend "Uttama Chola", showing the Chera emblem (Bow, left to the Sitting Tiger).

Koyil Adhikarikal or Ala Koyil was the Chera royal appointed to a chiefdom. This prince collected regular dues (the attaikkol and arantai) from the chiefdoms for the Chera Perumal.[13] The managers of the four Nambudiri-Brahmin temples around Kodungallur, known as the Nalu Thali, acted as Chera Perumal's permanent council or ministers.[25]

Four Temples (the Nalu Thali) [6]

Temple	Brahmin settlement	Notes
Nediya-thali or Thiruvanchikkulam Shiva Temple	Paravur	Associated with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar
Mel-thali or Thrikkulasekharapuram Temple	Muzhikkalam	Founded by Kulasekhara Alvar.
Kizh-thali	Airanikkalam
Chingapuram/Sringapuram Thali	Iringalakkudai

The Thousand or the Ayiram were the personal Nair protection guards of the Chera Perumal king (related to the Kodungallur Bhagavathi Temple). They functioned as the 'companions of honour' of the Perumal.[2][6] Padai-nayakar or Padai-nair was the commander of the armed forces of the kingdom or a chiefdom.[25] The Hundred or the Nutruvar was the military organisation of each chiefdom (this body had no defined limits of territorial jurisdiction). The Hundred multiple generally indicated the number of households in the nadu that could join the militia.[13] The Shadow or the Nizhal were the personal protection guards of the udaiyavar. They functioned as the 'companions of honour' of the udaiyavar.[2][13] Prakrithi was a body of non-Brahmin or Vellala notables assisting the udaiyavar.[13] The Adhikarar were the temple or royal servants involved in management and collection of dues or a local arbitrator.[13]

Through the analysis of the medieval Kerala inscriptions relating to the Chera Perumal period, scholars have substantiated the existence of several chieftaincies. From north to south, they are as follows: Kolla-desam (or) Kolathu-nadu (proposed name[26]), Purakizha-nadu, Kurumporai-nadu, Erala-nadu, Valluva-nadu,[13] Kizhmalai-nadu (the Eastern Hill Country[27]), Vempala-nadu, Munji-nadu, Nanruzhai-nadu[13] and Venadu or Kupaka (Kollam[26]).[28]

Kolathu-nadu came under the influence of the Perumals during the 11th century and Venadu was probably formed under the influence of the Perumals during the early 9th century.[13][28] The Perumal held direct authority over the country that extended from Palakkad to Vembanad Lake (including Kodungallur in the Periyar Valley).[13] Within this country, the nadus were present as militaristic/revenue units (with members of martial families serving the Perumal king appointed as the Udayaivar).[13]

• Jewish copper plates of Cochin (early 11th century CE)
• Quilon Syrian copper plates (9th century CE)