Video game development

Development is overseen by internal and external producers.[80][81] The producer working for the developer is known as the internal producer and manages the development team, schedules, reports progress, hires and assigns staff, and so on.[81][82] The producer working for the publisher is known as the external producer and oversees developer progress and budget.[83] Producer's responsibilities include PR, contract negotiation, liaising between the staff and stakeholders, schedule and budget maintenance, quality assurance, beta test management, and localization.[81][84] This role may also be referred to as project manager, project lead, or director.[81][84]

A video game publisher is a company that publishes video games that they have either developed internally or have had developed by an external video game developer. As with book publishers or publishers of DVD movies, video game publishers are responsible for their product's manufacturing and marketing, including market research and all aspects of advertising.

They usually finance the development, sometimes by paying a video game developer (the publisher calls this external development) and sometimes by paying an internal staff of developers called a studio. Consequently, they also typically own the IP of the game.[39] Large video game publishers also distribute the games they publish, while some smaller publishers instead hire distribution companies (or larger video game publishers) to distribute the games they publish.

Other functions usually performed by the publisher include deciding on and paying for any license that the game may utilize; paying for localization; layout, printing, and possibly the writing of the user manual; and the creation of graphic design elements such as the box design.

Large publishers may also attempt to boost efficiency across all internal and external development teams by providing services such as sound design and code packages for commonly needed functionality.[85]

Because the publisher usually finances development, it usually tries to manage development risk with a staff of producers or project managers to monitor the progress of the developer, critique ongoing development, and assist as necessary. Most video games created by an external video game developer are paid for with periodic advances on royalties. These advances are paid when the developer reaches certain stages of development, called milestones.

Independent video game developers create games without a publisher and may choose to digitally distribute their games.

Developers can range in size from small groups making casual games to housing hundreds of employees and producing several large titles. [16] Companies divide their subtasks of game's development. Individual job titles may vary; however, roles are the same within the industry.[31] The development team consists of several members.[22] Some members of the team may handle more than one role; similarly more than one task may be handled by the same member.[31] Team size can vary from 3 to 100 or more members, depending on the game's scope. The most represented are artists, followed by programmers, then designers, and finally, audio specialists, with one to three producers in management.[86] Many teams also include a dedicated writer with expertise in video game writing. These positions are employed full-time. Other positions, such as testers, may be employed only part-time.[86] Use of contractors for art, programming, and writing is standard within the industry. Salaries for these positions vary depending on both the experience and the location of the employee.[87]

A development team includes these roles or disciplines:[31]

A game designer is a person who designs gameplay, conceiving and designing the rules and structure of a game.[88][89][90] Development teams usually have a lead designer who coordinates the work of other designers. They are the main visionary of the game.[91] One of the roles of a designer is being a writer, often employed part-time to conceive game's narrative, dialogue, commentary, cutscene narrative, journals, video game packaging content, hint system, etc.[92][93][94] In larger projects, there are often separate designers for various parts of the game, such as, game mechanics, user interface, characters, dialogue, graphics, etc.

A game artist is a visual artist who creates video game art.[95][96] The art production is usually overseen by an art director or art lead, making sure their vision is followed. The art director manages the art team, scheduling and coordinating within the development team.[95]

The artist's job may be 2D oriented or 3D oriented. 2D artists may produce concept art,[97][98] sprites,[99] textures,[100][101] environmental backdrops or terrain images,[97][101] and user interface.[99] 3D artists may produce models or meshes,[102][103] animation,[102] 3D environment,[104] and cinematics.[104] Artists sometimes occupy both roles.

A game programmer is a software engineer who primarily develops video games or related software (such as game development tools). The game's codebase development is handled by programmers.[105][106] There are usually one to several lead programmers,[107] who implement the game's starting codebase and overview future development and programmer allocation on individual modules. An entry-level programmer can make, on average, around $70,000 annually and an experienced programmer can make, on average, around $125,000 annually.[87]

Individual programming disciplines roles include:[105]

• Physics – the programming of the game engine, including simulating physics, collision, object movement, etc.;
• AI – producing computer agents using game AI techniques, such as scripting, planning, rule-based decisions, etc.
• Graphics – the managing of graphical content utilization and memory considerations; the production of graphics engine, integration of models, textures to work along the physics engine.
• Sound – integration of music, speech, effect sounds into the proper locations and times.
• Gameplay – implementation of various games rules and features (sometimes called a generalist);
• Scripting – development and maintenance of high-level command system for various in-game tasks, such as AI, level editor triggers, etc.
• UI – production of user interface elements, like option menus, HUDs, help and feedback systems, etc.
• Input processing – processing and compatibility correlation of various input devices, such as keyboard, mouse, gamepad, etc.
• Network communications – the managing of data inputs and outputs for local and internet gameplay.
• Game tools – the production of tools to accompany the development of the game, especially for designers and scripters.

A level designer is a person who creates levels, challenges or missions for video games using a specific set of programs.[108][109] These programs may be commonly available commercial 3D or 2D design programs, or specially designed and tailored level editors made for a specific game.

Level designers work with both incomplete and complete versions of the game. Game programmers usually produce level editors and design tools for the designers to use. This eliminates the need for designers to access or modify game code.[110] Level editors may involve custom high-level scripting languages for interactive environments or AIs. As opposed to the level editing tools sometimes available to the community, level designers often work with placeholders and prototypes aiming for consistency and clear layout before required artwork is completed.

Sound engineers are technical professionals responsible for sound effects and sound positioning. They are sometimes involved in creating haptic feedback, as was the case with the Returnal game sound team at PlayStation Studios Creative Arts' in London.[111] They sometimes oversee voice acting and other sound asset creation.[112][113] Composers who create a game's musical score also comprise a game's sound team, though often this work is outsourced.

The quality assurance is carried out by game testers. A game tester analyzes video games to document software defects as part of a quality control. Testing is a highly technical field requiring computing expertise, and analytic competence.[101][114]

The testers ensure that the game falls within the proposed design: it both works and is entertaining.[115]This involves testing of all features, compatibility, localization, etc. Although, necessary throughout the whole development process, testing is expensive and is often actively utilized only towards the completion of the project.

Pre-production[126] or design phase[71] is a planning phase of the project focused on idea and concept development and production of initial design documents.[125][127][128][129] The goal of concept development is to produce clear and easy to understand documentation,[125][130] which describes all the tasks, schedules and estimates for the development team.[131] The suite of documents produced in this phase is called production plan.[132] This phase is usually not funded by a publisher,[125] however good publishers may require developers to produce plans during pre-production.[131]

The concept documentation can be separated into three stages or documents—high concept, pitch and concept;[124][133] however, there is no industry standard naming convention, for example, both Bethke (2003) and Bates (2004) refer to pitch document as "game proposal",[126][131] yet Moore, Novak (2010) refers to concept document as "game proposal".[124]

The late stage of pre-production may also be referred to as proof of concept,[126] or technical review[124] when more detailed game documents are produced.

Publishers have started to expect broader game proposals even featuring playable prototypes.[134]

High concept is a brief description of a game.[124][126] The high concept is the one-or two-sentence response to the question, "What is your game about?".

A pitch,[124][126] concept document,[124] proposal document,[131] or game proposal[126] is a short summary document intended to present the game's selling points and detail why the game would be profitable to develop.[124][126]

Verbal pitches may be made to management within the developer company, and then presented to publishers.[135] A written document may need to be shown to publishers before funding is approved.[131] A game proposal may undergo one to several green-light meetings with publisher executives who determine if the game is to be developed.[136] The presentation of the project is often given by the game designers.[137] Demos may be created for the pitch; however may be unnecessary for established developers with good track records.[137]

If the developer acts as its own publisher, or both companies are subsidiaries of a single company, then only the upper management needs to give approval.[137]

Concept document,[126] game proposal,[124] or game plan[138] is a more detailed document than the pitch document.[124][126][130] This includes all the information produced about the game.[138] This includes the high concept, game's genre, gameplay description, features, setting, story, target audience, hardware platforms, estimated schedule, marketing analysis, team requirements, and risk analysis.[139]

Before an approved design is completed, a skeleton crew of programmers and artists usually begins work.[137] Programmers may develop quick-and-dirty prototypes showcasing one or more features that stakeholders would like to see incorporated in the final product.[137] Artists may develop concept art and asset sketches as a springboard for developing real game assets.[137] Producers may work part-time on the game at this point, scaling up for full-time commitment as development progresses.[137] Game producers work during pre-production is related to planning the schedule, budget and estimating tasks with the team.[137] The producer aims to create a solid production plan so that no delays are experienced at the start of the production.[137]

Before a full-scale production can begin, the development team produces the first version of a game design document incorporating all or most of the material from the initial pitch.[140][141] The design document describes the game's concept and major gameplay elements in detail. It may also include preliminary sketches of various aspects of the game. The design document is sometimes accompanied by functional prototypes of some sections of the game. The design document remains a living document throughout the development—often changed weekly or even daily.[142]

Compiling a list of game's needs is called "requirement capture".[10]

Placeholder graphics are characteristic of early game prototypes.

Writing prototypes of gameplay ideas and features is an important activity that allows programmers and game designers to experiment with different algorithms and usability scenarios for a game. A great deal of prototyping may take place during pre-production before the design document is complete and may, in fact, help determine what features the design specifies. Prototyping at this stage is often done manually, (paper prototyping), not digitally, as this is often easier and faster to test and make changes before wasting time and resources into what could be a canceled idea or project. Prototyping may also take place during active development to test new ideas as the game emerges.

Prototypes are often meant only to act as a proof of concept or to test ideas, by adding, modifying or removing some of the features.[143] Most algorithms and features debuted in a prototype may be ported to the game once they have been completed.

Often prototypes need to be developed quickly with very little time for up-front design (around 15 to 20 minutes of testing). Therefore, usually very prolific programmers are called upon to quickly code these testbed tools. RAD tools may be used to aid in the quick development of these programs. In case the prototype is in a physical form, programmers and designers alike will make the game with paper, dice, and other easy to access tools in order to make the prototype faster.

A successful development model is iterative prototyping, where design is refined based on current progress. There are various technology available for video game development[144]

Production is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced.[145]

Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production.

Game design is an essential and collaborative[146] process of designing the content and rules of a game,[147] requiring artistic and technical competence as well as writing skills.[148] Creativity and an open mind is vital for the completion of a successful video game.

During development, the game designer implements and modifies the game design to reflect the current vision of the game. Features and levels are often removed or added. The art treatment may evolve and the backstory may change. A new platform may be targeted as well as a new demographic. All these changes need to be documented and disseminated to the rest of the team. Most changes occur as updates to the design document.

The programming of the game is handled by one or more game programmers. They develop prototypes to test ideas, many of which may never make it into the final game. The programmers incorporate new features demanded by the game design and fix any bugs introduced during the development process. Even if an off-the-shelf game engine is used, a great deal of programming is required to customize almost every game.

From a time standpoint, the game's first level takes the longest to develop. As level designers and artists use the tools for level building, they request features and changes to the in-house tools that allow for quicker and higher quality development. Newly introduced features may cause old levels to become obsolete, so the levels developed early on may be repeatedly developed and discarded. Because of the dynamic environment of game development, the design of early levels may also change over time. It is not uncommon to spend upwards of twelve months on one level of a game developed over the course of three years. Later levels can be developed much more quickly as the feature set is more complete and the game vision is clearer and more stable.

During development, artists make art assets according to specifications given by the designers. Early in production, concept artists make concept art to guide the artistic direction of the game, rough art is made for prototypes, and the designers work with artists to design the visual style and visual language of the game. As production goes on, more final art is made, and existing art is edited based on player feedback.

Game audio may be separated into three categories—sound effects, music, and voice-over.[149]

Sound effect production is the production of sounds by either tweaking a sample to a desired effect or replicating it with real objects.[149] Sound effects include UI sound design, which effectively conveys information both for visible UI elements and as an auditory display. It provides sonic feedback for in-game interfaces, as well as contributing to the overall game aesthetic.[150] Sound effects are important and impact the game's delivery.[151]

Music may be synthesized or performed live.[152]

There are four main ways in which music is presented in a game.

• Music may be ambient, especially for slow periods of game, where the music aims to reinforce the aesthetic mood and game setting.[153]
• Music may be triggered by in-game events. For example, in such games as Pac-Man or Mario, player picking up power-ups triggered respective musical scores.[153]
• Action music, such as chase, battle or hunting sequences is fast-paced, hard-changing score.[154]
• Menu music, similar to credits music, creates aural impact while relatively little action is taking place.[154]

A game title with 20 hours of single-player gameplay may feature around 1 hour.[154]

Quality assurance of a video game product plays a significant role throughout the development cycle of a game, though comes more significantly into play as the game nears completion. Unlike other software products or productivity applications, video games are fundamentally meant to entertain, and thus the testing of video games is more focused on the end-user experience rather than the accuracy of the software code's performance, which leads to differences in how game software is developed.[155]

Because game development is focused on the presentation and gameplay as seen by the player, there often is little rigor in maintaining and testing backend code in early stages of development since such code may be readily disregarded if there are changes found in gameplay. Some automated testing may be used to assure the core game engine operates as expected, but most game testing comes via game tester, who enter the testing process once a playable prototype is available. This may be one level or subset of the game software that can be used to any reasonable extent.[155] The use of testers may be lightweight at the early stages of development, but the testers' role becomes more predominant as the game nears completion, becoming a full-time role alongside development.[155] Early testing is considered a key part of game design; the most common issue raised in several published post-mortems on game development was the failure to start the testing process early.[155]

As code matures and the gameplay features solidify, then development typically includes more rigorous test controls such as regression testing to make sure new updates to the code base do not change working parts of the game. Games are complex software systems, and changes in one code area may unexpected cause a seemingly unrelated part of the game to fail. Testers are tasked to repeatedly play through updated versions of games in these later stages to look for any issues or bugs not otherwise found from automated testing. Because this can be a monotonous task of playing the same game over and over, this process can lead to games frequently being released with uncaught bugs or glitches.[155]

There are other factors simply inherent to video games that can make testing difficult. This includes the use of randomized gameplay systems, which require more testing for both game balance and bug tracking than more linearized games, the balance of cost and time to devote to testing as part of the development budget, and assuring that the game still remains fun and entertaining to play as changes are made to it.[155]

Despite the dangers of overlooking regression testing, some game developers and publishers fail to test the full feature suite of the game and ship a game with bugs. This can result in customers dissatisfaction and failure to meet sales goals. When this does happen, most developers and publishers quickly release patches that fix the bugs and make the game fully playable again.[155] Certain publishing models are designed specifically to accommodate the fact that first releases of games may be bug-ridden but will be fixed post-release. The early access model invites players to pay into a game before its planned release and help to provide feedback and bug reports.[155] Mobile games and games with live services are also anticipated to be updated on a frequent basis, offset pre-release testing with live feedback and bug reports.[155]

Video game development milestones follow a similar process as with other software development.

Commercial game development projects may be required to meet milestones set by publisher. Milestones mark major events during game development and are used to track game's progress.[156] Such milestones may be, for example, first playable,[157][158] alpha,[159][160] or beta[160] game versions. Project milestones depend on the developer schedules.[156]

Milestones are usually based on multiple short descriptions for functionality; examples may be "Player roaming around in game environment" or "Physics working, collisions, vehicle" etc. (numerous descriptions are possible). These milestones are usually how the developer gets paid; sometimes as "an advance against royalty". These milestones are listed, anywhere from three to twenty depending on developer and publisher. The milestone list is usually a collaborative agreement between the publisher and developer. The developer usually advocates for making the milestone descriptions as simple as possible; depending on the specific publisher - the milestone agreements may get very detailed for a specific game. When working with a good publisher, the "spirit of the law" is usually adhered to regarding milestone completion... in other words if the milestone is 90% complete the milestone is usually paid with the understanding that it will be 100% complete by the next due milestone. It is a collaborative agreement between publisher and developer, and usually (but not always) the developer is constrained by heavy monthly development expenses that need to be met. Also, sometimes milestones are "swapped", the developer or publisher may mutually agree to amend the agreement and rearrange milestone goals depending on changing requirements and development resources available. Milestone agreements are usually included as part of the legal development contracts. After each "milestone" there is usually a payment arrangement. Some very established developers may simply have a milestone agreement based on the amount of time the game is in development (monthly / quarterly) and not specific game functionality - this is not as common as detailed functionality "milestone lists".

There is no industry standard for defining milestones, and such vary depending on publisher, year, or project.[161] Some common milestones for two-year development cycle are as follows:[156]

The first playable is the game version containing representative gameplay and assets,[156] this is the first version with functional major gameplay elements.[157] It is often based on the prototype created in pre-production.[158] Alpha and first playable are sometimes used to refer to a single milestone, however large projects require first playable before feature complete alpha.[157] First playable occurs 12 to 18 months before code release. It is sometimes referred to as the "Pre-Alpha" stage.[160]

Alpha is the stage when key gameplay functionality is implemented, and assets are partially finished.[160] A game in alpha is feature complete, that is, game is playable and contains all the major features.[161] These features may be further revised based on testing and feedback.[160] Additional small, new features may be added, similarly planned, but unimplemented features may be dropped.[161] Programmers focus mainly on finishing the codebase, rather than implementing additions.[159]

Code freeze is the stage when new code is no longer added to the game and only bugs are being corrected. Code freeze occurs three to four months before code release.[160]

Beta is feature and asset complete version of the game, when only bugs are being fixed.[159][160] This version contains no bugs that prevent the game from being shippable.[159] No changes are made to the game features, assets, or code. Beta occurs two to three months before code release.[160]

Code release is the stage when many bugs are fixed and game is ready to be shipped or submitted for console manufacturer review. This version is tested against QA test plan. First code release candidate is usually ready three to four weeks before code release.[160]

Gold master is the final game's build that is used as a master for production of the game.[162]

In most AAA game development, games are announced a year or more in advance and given a planned release date or approximate window so that they can promote and market the game, establish orders with retailers, and entice consumers to pre-order the game. Delaying the release of a video game can have negative financial impact for publishers and developers, and extensive delays may lead to project cancellation and employee layoffs.[163] To assure a game makes a set release date, publishers and developers may require their employees to work overtime to complete the game, which is considered common in the industry.[164] This overtime is often referred to it as "crunch time" or "crunch mode".[165] In 2004 and afterwards, the culture of crunch time in the industry came under scrutiny, leading to many publishers and developers to reduce the expectation on developers for overtime work and better schedule management, though crunch time still can occur.[166]

After the game goes gold and ships, some developers will give team members comp time (perhaps up to a week or two) to compensate for the overtime put in to complete the game, though this compensation is not standard.

Once a game ships, the maintenance phase for the video game begins.[167]

Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets.

In recent times popularity of online console games has grown, and online capable video game consoles and online services such as Xbox Live for the Xbox have developed. Developers can maintain their software through downloadable patches. These changes would not have been possible in the past without the widespread availability of the Internet.

PC development is different. Game developers try to account for majority of configurations and hardware. However, the number of possible configurations of hardware and software inevitably leads to discovery of game-breaking circumstances that the programmers and testers did not account for.

Programmers wait for a period to get as many bug reports as possible. Once the developer thinks they've obtained enough feedback, the programmers start working on a patch. The patch may take weeks or months to develop, but it is intended to fix most accounted bugs and problems with the game that were overlooked past code release, or in rare cases, fix unintended problems caused by previous patches. Occasionally a patch may include extra features or content or may even alter gameplay.

In the case of a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG), such as a MMORPG or MMORTS, the shipment of the game is the starting phase of maintenance.[167] The maintenance staff for such an online game can number in the dozens, sometimes including members of the original programming team, as the game world is continuously changed and iterated and new features are added. Some developers implement a public test realm or player test realm (PTR) in order to test out significant upcoming changes prior to release. These specialized servers offer similar benefits as beta testing, where players get to preview new features while the developer gathers data about bugs and game balance.[168][169]

Outsourced work is sometimes anonymous, i.e. not credited on the final product. This might go against the wishes of the developer, or it is something they reluctantly consent to because it is the only work they can get.[181] See Video game controversies § Lack of crediting for more information on this.

However, anonymity can also be agreed upon, or even desired by the outsourced party. A 2015 Polygon article stated that this practice is known as ghost development.[182] Ghost developers are hired by other developers to provide assistance, by publishers to develop a title they designed, or by companies outside the gaming industry. These businesses prefer to keep this hidden from the public to protect their brand equity, not wanting consumers or investors to know that they rely on external help. Ghost development can involve (small) portions of a project, but there have been instances of entire games being outsourced without the studio being credited.[182]

Ghost development has a particular long history in the Japanese video game industry.[183] Probably the best-known example is Tose. Founded in 1979, this 'behind-the-scenes' agent has either developed or helped develop over 2,000 games as of 2017, most of them anonymously. This includes uncredited contributions to multiple Resident Evil, Metal Gear, and Dragon Quest titles.[184][185] Another example is Tokyo-based Hyde, which worked on Final Fantasy, Persona, and Yakuza games.[186] Its president, Kenichi Yanagihara, stated that the approach stems from Japanese culture, in which many people prefer not to seek the limelight.[187]

As a game nears completion, the publisher will want to showcase a demo of the title at trade shows. Many games have a "Trade Show demo" scheduled.

The major annual trade shows are, for example, Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) or Penny Arcade Expo (PAX).[191] E3 is the largest show in North America.[192] E3 is hosted primarily for marketing and business deals. New games and platforms are announced at E3 and it received broad press coverage.[77][193] Thousands of products are on display and press demonstration schedules are kept.[193] In the 2000s E3 became a more closed-door event and many advertisers have withdrawn, reducing E3's budget.[77] PAX, created by authors of Penny Arcade blog and web-comic, is a mature and playful event with a player-centred philosophy.[34]

A game created in one language may also be published in other countries which speak a different language. For that region, the developers may want to translate the game to make it more accessible. For example, some games created for PlayStation Vita were initially published in Japanese language, like Soul Sacrifice. Non-native speakers of the game's original language may have to wait for the translation of the game to their language. But most modern big-budget games take localization into account during the development process and the games are released in several different languages simultaneously.[194]

Localization is the process of translating the language assets in a game into other languages.[195] By localizing games, they increase their level of accessibility where games could help to expend the international markets effectively. Game localization is generally known as language translations yet a "full localization" of a game is a complex project. Different levels of translation range from: zero translation being that there is no translation to the product and all things are sent raw, basic translation where only a few text and subtitles are translated or even added, and a full translation where new voice overs and game material changes are added.

There are various essential elements on localizing a game including translating the language of the game to adjusting in-game assets for different cultures to reach more potential consumers in other geographies (or globalization for short). Translation seems to fall into the scope of localization, which itself constitutes a substantially broader endeavor.[196] These include the different levels of translation to the globalization of the game itself. However, certain developers seem to be divided on whether globalization falls under localization or not.

Moreover, in order to fit into the local markets, game production companies often change or redesign the graphic designs or the packaging of the game for marketing purposes. For example, the popular game Assassin's Creed has two different packaging designs for the European and US market.[197] By localizing the graphics and packaging designs, companies might arouse better connections and attention from the consumers from various regions.

In the United States, in the early history of video game development, the prominent locale for game development was the corridor from San Francisco to Silicon Valley in California.[215] Most new developers in the US open near such "hot beds".[15]

At present, many large publishers still operate there, such as: Activision Blizzard, Capcom Entertainment, Crystal Dynamics, Electronic Arts, Namco Bandai Games, Sega of America, and Sony Computer Entertainment America. However, due to the nature of game development, many publishers are present in other regions, such as Big Fish Games (Washington), Majesco Entertainment (New Jersey), Microsoft Corporation (Washington), Nintendo of America (Washington), and Take-Two Interactive (New York),[216]

Many universities and design schools are offering classes specifically focused on game development.[14] Some have built strategic alliances with major game development companies.[217][218] These alliances ensure that students have access to the latest technologies and are provided the opportunity to find jobs within the gaming industry once qualified. Many innovative ideas are presented at conferences, such as Independent Games Festival (IGF) or Game Developers Conference (GDC).

Indie game development may motivate students who produce a game for their final projects or thesis and may open their own game company.[209]

Video game industry employment is fairly volatile, similar to other artistic industries including television, music, etc. Scores of game development studios crop up, work on one game, and then quickly go under.[219] This may be one reason why game developers tend to congregate geographically; if their current studio goes under, developers can flock to an adjacent one or start another from the ground up.

In an industry where only the top 20% of products make a profit,[220] it is easy to understand this fluctuation. Numerous games may start development and are cancelled, or perhaps even completed but never published. Experienced game developers may work for years and yet never ship a title: such is the nature of the business.

• https://www.academia.edu/6639017/Challenges_in_video_game_localization_An_integrated_perspective
• http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2012/v57/n2/1013949ar.html
• The Game Localization Handbook (Charles River Media Game Development) Paperback – October, 2004, by Heather M(Heather Chandler) Chandler (Author)
• http://bytelevel.com/global/game_globalization.html (Q&A with the author)
• http://www.jostrans.org/issue06/art_ohagan.php

• Game Development Wiki at Gamedev.net (discontinued and archived)