Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples

Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples are present or historical claims made by public figures, organizations or states that deny any of the multiple atrocities committed against Indigenous peoples when academic consensus or present state policy that acknowledges that such crimes occurred.[1] The denial includes denial of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, or ethnic cleansing.[2][3][4][5] Denial may be the result of the minority status, social segregation, population size, or visibility. Further factors include marginalization, the lack of political representation, and lower economic or social status.[6][7][8][9]

During the age of colonization, often misrepresented as the Age of Discovery, many empires colonized lands which were inhabited by the Indigenous peoples of those lands. In some cases, the invaders created new states that included the surviving Indigenous peoples within their new political borders.[10][11][12] In the process of expanding their frontier, there were a number of atrocities committed against Indigenous nations.[13][14][15][7] While Indigenous scholars have been doing so since these events occurred, non-Indigenous scholars are now increasingly examining the impact of settler colonialism and internal colonialism from the perspective of Indigenous peoples.[16][17][18][19][20][7][21][22][23] The crimes against Indigenous peoples include internal displacement, introduction of diseases, forced containment in reservations, forced assimilation, forced labour, criminalization, dispossession, land appropriation, forcibly transferring children of the group to another group, enslavement, captivity, massacres, forced religious conversion, and reduction of means of subsistence.[24][25][26]

Background

In comparison with the legal definition of genocide in the Genocide Convention that has been used in actual litigation,[27] additional scholarly definitions have been used to examine the diverse history of genocide, including those that include cultural and ethnic genocide as per Raphael Lemkin.[28] For example, genocide scholar Israel Charny has proposed a definition of genocide: "Genocide in the generic sense is the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims."[29]

According to Gregory Stanton, founder of Genocide Watch, who wrote about the ten stages of genocide, the final stage of a genocide process is denial. In this stage, the perpetrators minimize, negate, lie or conceal information about events. Victims are blamed and deaths are attributed to side factors such as disease or starvation.[30] According to sociologist Daniel Feierstein, the genocide perpetrator implements a process of transforming the identity of the survivors (if there are any) and erasing the memory of the existence of the victim group.[31] According to historian Norman Naimark, during a genocide or ethnic cleansing process, there may be destruction of physical symbols of the victims including temples, books, monuments, documents, graveyards, arquitectural heritage, heritage sites and Indigenous names: "Ethnic cleansing involves not only the forced deportation of entire nations but the eradication of the memory of their presence."[32]

Ward Churchill explains denial of genocide in terms of the politics of genocide recognition.[19] Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky have argued that the attention given to issues is the product of mass media, as they mention in Manufacturing Consent: "A propaganda system will consistently portray people abused in enemy states as worthy victims, whereas those treated with equal or greater severity by its own government or clients will be unworthy!"[33] Thus, Chomsky views the term genocide as one that is used by those in positions of political power and media prominence against their rivals, but the avoidance of using the term to describe their own actions, past and present.[34]

Human rights and genocide are issues of international concern as the alleged perpetrators can be state agents themselves, while some states argue that internal matters are an issue of sovereignty, independent of any external influence.[35] Hitchcock and Twedt say that even though many countries have committed genocide, many times other countries and even the UN avoid criticizing their internal affairs.[35]

Unfortunately, many states do not respect the rights or even the lives of Indigenous peoples which exist within their political borders.[36] These borders themselves do not predate the communal territories of Indigenous peoples and may be the result of a settler or exploitation colonization process. For example, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international political boundaries as of 2014.[37] In the latter part of the twentieth century the genocide of Indigenous peoples attracted more attention from the international community including scholars and human rights organizations.[38]

Indigenous peoples (also known as First Peoples, First Nations, Aboriginal Peoples, Native Peoples, Indigenous Natives, or Autochthonous Peoples) are the earliest known inhabitants of a territory, especially a territory that has been colonized by a now-dominant group.[39] Ninety (90) of the world's countries contain a combined amount of more than five thousand (5000) Indigenous groups, speaking four thousand (4000) languages.[40] This fact and the age of colonization gave rise to many instances of atrocities perpetrated on both sides as settlers expanded.[1] Self-identification is a core concept in the definition of Indigenous peoples. Article 33 (1) of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples (2007) also refers to the self-identification of Indigenous peoples: "Indigenous peoples have the right to determine their own identity or membership in accordance with their customs and traditions."[41]

Some of the main reasons for denying genocide are to evade moral or even criminal responsibility, as a form of hate speech, to avoid retribution, restitution and compensation, and to protect the perpetrators' reputation.[1][42][43]

J. Ross Browne, "Protecting the Settlers." From Browne, "The Coast Rangers: A Chronicle of Events in California," part II: "The Indian Reservation," Harper's New Monthly Magazine 23, no. 135 (August 1861): 313. This image accompanied an article by Browne in which he described the killing of Yuki people at Round Valley, California.

Atrocity acknowledgement

Some governments have acknowledged past atrocities or apologized for the policies of previous governments.[44] This has been the case in Argentina,[45] Australia,[46][47][48] Belgium,[49][50][51][52][53] Britain,[54][55][56][57] Canada,[48][58][59] California,[60] Chile,[48] El Salvador,[48] Germany,[61] Guatemala,[62] Mexico,[63] Netherlands,[64][65] New Zealand,[48][66] and United States.[48][67][68][69] In their apologies, state officials do not always agree with human rights organizations' and scholars' characterization of the atrocities.[70][71]

In the late 19th century, Europeans began to settle in Dawson Island, Chile. This is a photo of an internment camp for the Selknam and other native people. Armed men hunted down the Indigenous peoples for bounty in the Selk'nam genocide.

Pope Francis apologized for the Catholic Church's role in colonization and for "crimes committed against the native peoples during the so-called conquest of America".[72] He has also apologized for the Church's role in the operation of residential schools in Canada,[73] qualifying it as genocide.[74] In 2023, the Vatican rejected the Doctrine of Discovery, which formed the basis of land appropriation by others.[75]

In 2020, the Bank of England apologized for the role of directors in the Atlantic slave trade and pledged to remove pictures and statues of any of the 25 bank leaders that owned or traded in slavery.[76][77]

In 2022 Justin Welby, the Primate of the Church of England, apologized to the Indigenous peoples in Canada, adding to similar apologies by other churches in Canada such as the Anglican Church of Canada.[78][79]

Atrocity rationalisation

As per Gregory Stanton, in the last stage of genocide, victims may be blamed for what happened to them. In the fourth phase, they can be dehumanized with hate speech.[30] In many cases, members of Indigenous communities have been described by the dominant society with negative stereotypes for generations.[35]

Oftentimes, Indigenous peoples have been described with accounts of generalized practices like cannibalism.[80][81][82][83] Historian David Stannard writes: "...the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating".[84] Indigenous peoples have been dehumanized in accounts of Western scholars such as Juan Gines de Sepulveda to justify their slavery, oppression and even extermination. Controversial accounts of these peoples circulated in Europe in translations of letters by Christopher Columbus.[85] Sepulveda used references to the Bible and Aristotle to depict Native Americans as natural slaves.[86]

Australian Professor Henry Reynolds says that many genocide scholars have named Tasmania in their lists of legitimate case studies. He claims that Jews were targeted "because they were not human, just as the Tasmanian Aborigines were hunted to death for the same reason".[87]

Genocide scholar Adam Jones proposed a framework for genocide denial that consists of several strategies, including minimizing fatalities, blaming fatalities on unrelated "natural" causes, denying intent to destroy a group, and claiming self-defense in preemptive or disproportionate attacks.[10] The vectors of death raised by forced labor, displacement, slavery, overcrowded housing and schools, famine and epidemics are downplayed.[88][89] According to historian Colin Tatz, denial takes several forms: First, the denial of any past genocidal behavior. Second, the counterview that westerners have been the victims. Third, that in reality there has been more good than bad in race relations.[90]

According to Mahmood Mamdani, in general, Indigenous societies did not necessarily consider land private property. Australian anthropologist Patrick Wolfe said that physical removal from their land resulted in the loss of means of subsistence, as the land was privatized and off limits to Indigenous peoples.[91] Some Western writers such as Thomas Hobbes rationalized the appropriation of Indigenous land arguing that the land belonged to those that 'developed' it but Indigenous peoples had different land management practices.[92]

On 8 March 1782, militiamen bludgeoned to death and scalped ninety six Moravian Christian Indians (primarily Lenape and Mohican). The majority of the unarmed victims were women and children. The U.S. militiamen from Pennsylvania were under the command of David Williamson, at the Moravian missionary village of Gnadenhutten, Ohio Country.

Denial examples

According to Professor Robert K. Hitchcock, Indigenous peoples have experienced to human rights violations, massacres, and genocides in many countries in which they reside. He said that: "the destruction of Indigenous peoples and their cultures has been a policy of many of the world's governments, although most government spokespersons argue that the disappearance or disruption of Indigenous societies was not purposeful but rather occurred inadvertently."[93]

Leo Kuper has described denial as a routine defense: "One of the consequences of the adoption of the Genocide Convention is that denial has become a routine defense. This is intimately related to its present recognition as an international crime with potentially significant sanctions by way of punishment, claims for reparation, and restitution of territorial rights... Denial by the oblivion of indifference has also been the fate of many hunting and gathering groups and other Indigenous peoples."[94]

According to professors James V. Fenelon and Clifford E. Trafzer, the historical record is clear: "Euro-American people and governments have committed genocide worldwide against Indigenous peoples..." But many scholars have denied the genocide of Indigenous peoples in the context of the invasion of what would be known as America. Meanwhile, Indigenous peoples "have long interpreted the invasion of America as genocide."[95] According to Professor Laurelyn Whitt, the vast majority of North American scholars deny that genocide has occurred on the North American continent during the course of its colonization by Europeans. Meanwhile, genocide scholars outside of North America have mentioned it repeatedly.[25]

Americas

Historian Howard Zinn claimed that in American history textbooks, America's history of abuse against Indigenous peoples is mostly ignored, or presented from the point of view of the state.[96] In his 2003 work, Professor Elazar Barkan claimed that Indigenous genocide has not been given a place in the dominant version of history, particularly in the history of the United States: "Only wide recognition of Indigenous destruction as genocide will acknowledge such opinion as denial. At present , these are more likely uninformed opinions."[97]

Adam Jones said that there is a denialist position on genocide of Indigenous peoples in the informed sectors of the whole of the Americas. For example, Professor Alexander Bielakowski of the University of Findlay said that "if [it] was the plan" to "wipe out the American Indians ... the US did a damn poor job following through with it." British historian Michael Burleigh questions the disappearance of Indigenous peoples since they are running multi-million dollar casinos.[10] Jones has said that the historical revisionism has been so thorough that in some cases the Americas have been depicted as empty of people at the time of the beginning of European colonization, when in fact the majority of the Indigenous population died during the colonization process.[98]

Historian Andres Resendez has written a book called "The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America" in which he argues that the slavery of Indigenous peoples in the Americas has been "almost completely erased from our historical memory". He compares the thousands of books on African slavery compared to a couple of dozen books specialized on Indigenous slavery. One of the reasons he gives to explain this erasure is that African slavery was legal, so there are many records and documents that provide evidence and data about it, whereas Indigenous slavery was largely illegal, so it is not on official records like bills of sale, wills and ship manifests as in the case of African slavery. The slavery of Indigenous peoples took various forms across time and territory, for example in the form of peonage or the enslavement of prisoners of just wars. Furthermore, most Indigenous nations lost almost all of its ancestral homeland whereas many African nations did not.[99]

David Stannard wrote on the 500 anniversary (1992) of the beginning of colonization of the Americas about denial of atrocities: "Expressions of horror and condemnation over ethnic cleansing in Bosnia and Herzegovina routinely appear on the same newspaper page or television news show as reports of the latest festivities surrounding the Columbian quincentennial. Bosnians and Croatians are worthy victims. The native peoples of the Americas never have been. But of late, American and European denials of culpability for the most thoroughgoing genocide in the history of the world have assumed a new guise."[100] Stannard also interpreted an essay[101] by author Christopher Hitchens, saying that Hitchens was supporting social Darwinism.[102]

Encomienda in Codex Kingsborough

Stannard offers the hypothetical scenario of 1940s Germans making similar statements if they had talked in such a way about Jews after World War II (as Hitchens and others talk about Native Americans) to compare the preponderance of the Holocaust vis-a-vis Native American genocide.[103] Stannard in his essay concludes that the Holocaust has gained a prominent position in the public eye, gathering the attention of the international community, but even though he recognizes the scale and tragedy of the atrocity, he warns the West to not ignore the atrocities in the Western hemisphere.[104]

According to the New York Times, Lynne V. Cheney, former chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities, and a group of scholars had a dispute over Mrs. Cheney's rejection of a television project celebrating the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's discovery of the New World. Mrs. Cheney said the proposal's use of the word "genocide" in connection with Columbus was a problem: "We might be interested in funding a film that debated that issue," she said, "but we are not about to fund a film that asserts it. Columbus was guilty of many sins, but he was not Hitler."[105]

According to a 2016-2018 survey, "only 36% of Americans almost certainly believe that the United States is guilty of committing genocide against Native Americans." Indigenous author Michelle A. Stanley writes that "Indigenous genocide is largely denied, erased, relegated to the distant past, or presented as inevitable". She writes that Indigenous genocide is depicted broadly, without touching on the pattern of a series of separate genocides against multiple distinct tribal nations.[106] The inevitability of genocide displaces agency from people to exogenic forces such as "providence, fate and nature". This posture seeks to absolve perpetrators from responsibility of the destruction of Indigenous nations.

Academic Susan Cameron wrote: "Today, textbooks throughout the country continue to ignore or minimize the brutal treatment of Native peoples, the mass killings and persecutions, the displacement, and the continued struggles in tribal communities".[107]

Academic Ward Churchill argues that the Indigenous populations were subjected to a systematic campaign of extermination by settler colonialism in what is now known as the United States. He discusses American policies such as the Indian Removal Act and the forced assimilation of Indigenous children in American Indian boarding schools operating in the mid-1800s to early 1900s.[19] The United States ratified the Genocide Convention forty years later until 1986,[108] and did so with conditions.[109] He has called manifest destiny an ideology used to justify dispossession and genocide against Native Americans, and compared it to Lebensraum ideology of Nazi Germany.[110]

In Paraguay and Brazil, genocide scholar Leo Kuper says that genocide has been denied on the basis of alleged lack of intent to destroy.[111] The case of the Ache in Paraguay has been legally determined to be a case of political persecution, not genocide as per David Stannard.[112]

In Guatemala there has been debate over accusations of genocide, and instead calling the conflict civil war in the case of Guatemala, even though the Guatemalan Truth Commission has reported genocide.[113][114][115],

In Argentina, the Conquest of the Desert had been interpreted in war terms, silencing the fact of Indigenous genocide.[116][117] In the case of the Napalmi massacre, a judge concluded that the massacre took place in a context of genocide.[118][119]

According to Nadia Rubaii, the mass atrocities in Latin America have been less visible internationally for three reasons. Victim groups have frequently been attacked for their ideological or political differences, leading the international community to consider such atrocities as domestic political issues. Second, perpetrators who damage ecosystems and means of subsistence argue that they are seeking economic development for common benefit and deny the intention to inflict any harm. Finally, if there is academic attention to the topic, it is documented in Spanish, and is not available in English.[120]

California

American Progress, by John Gast 1872. Columbia escorts Europeans as they invade Indigenous nations, clearing native peoples and animals.

Benjamin Madley has described the atrocities against Indigenous peoples in California as genocide,[121][122][123][124] as does Mohamed Adhikari,[125] and historian Brendan Lindsay.[126] Benjamin Madley claims that there is denial of atrocities: "Justice demands that even long after the perpetrators have vanished, we document the crimes that they and their advocates have too often concealed, denied, or suppressed."[127]

Despite the well documented evidence of the widespread atrocities of the California genocide, the social science and history textbooks approved by the California Department of Education ignored the history of this genocide.[128][129] Robert K. Hitchcock says that during the California genocide, "California state legislators, administrators, Indian agents, and townspeople denied that a genocide was happening."[1]

Canada

In Canada, Justice Beverly McLachlin, of the Supreme Court, said that Canada's historical treatment of Indigenous peoples was cultural genocide.[130] Professor David Bruce MacDonald argued that the Canadian government should recognize various atrocities committed against the Indigenous peoples in Canada.[131] Prime Minister Justin Trudeau apologized in the context of the 2021 Canadian Indian residential schools gravesite discoveries.[132][133][134] In 2023's National Truth and Reconciliation Day, Trudeau said that denialism was on the rise.[135] Tricia E. Logan wrote that Canada has been in denial of the true costs of its colonial process.[136]

Dr. Rita K. Dhamoon made a number criticisms of the Canadian Museum of Human Rights (CMHR) including the centrality of the Holocaust in the museum, framing residential schools as assimilationist and not genocidal, and denial of the genocidal nature of settler colonialism.[24] The CMHR opened in 2014 receiving criticism after the museum would not use the term genocide to describe the history of colonialism in Canada. In 2019, the museum reversed its policy, and officially recognizes genocide of Indigenous peoples in Canada in its content.[137]

Senator Lynn Beyak generated controversy and accusations of genocide denial in the Canadian Indian residential school system and voiced disapproval of the final Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada report, saying that it had omitted the positives of the schools.[138][139][140] Former Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole said that the residential school system educated Indigenous children, but then changed his view: "The system was intended to remove children from the influence of their homes, families, traditions, and cultures". Former publisher Conrad Black and others have also been accused of denial.[141][142][143][144][145][146]

In 2022, the Canadian government announced that it would pay C$31.5 billion to reform the foster care system and compensate Indigenous families for its deficiencies.[147] Cindy Blackstock, director of the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada, said the forced transfers of children are a result of discrimination in government policy and inequitable provision of government services.[148][149][150] A truth commission report found that Canadian governments and churches pursued policies of cultural genocide throughout the 20th century.[151] The government has acknowledged the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the foster care system.[152]

Scouts Canada has issued an apology for "its role in the eradication of First Nation, Inuit and Metis people for more than a century".[153]

Africa

In Britain, the Foreign Office kept documents related to the British Empire in a secret archive at Hanslope Park, north of London. Documents in the archive detailed a high level cover up of the deaths of 11 men killed by prison guards during the Mau Mau rebellion.[154] Opinions are divided on whether the government successfully covered up the violence used in the repression of the Mau Mau, with some authors pointing out that documents in Hans-lope Park had already been released in the 1980s.[155] The repression used by colonial authorities[156] had been documented in a number of academic works.[155]

In Belgium, the atrocities in the Congo Free State are not in the public discourse, and the topic is not addressed in education.[157][158] King Leopold II burned the colonial archive for eight days to cover up evidence of atrocities.[159] The archive of the colony was destroyed and the king said, "they have no right to know what I did there".[160]

In 1999, Adam Hochschild published King Leopold's Ghost, an award-winning book (and a documentary) about the atrocities committed in the Congo Free State.[161] The American Historical Association has awarded the book and claimed that Belgium has come to terms with this history because of the book.[162]

Australia

Between 1838 and 1931, Aboriginal prisoners held on Rottnest Island, Australia were held in deplorable conditions and subjected to cruel and inhumane treatment.

During the colonization of Australia, the Indigenous Australian population experienced the Australian frontier wars in which there was conflict over land. Massacres and mass poisonings have also been carried out against Indigenous people.[163] The Bringing Them Home report highlighted the abuse committed against Australian Indigenous peoples by forceful removal of children from Indigenous families in what is called Stolen Generations.[164] Nonetheless, former Prime Minister John Howard refused to apologize in the Motion of Reconciliation, claiming that the program had no genocidal intent.[165][166][167] A scholar that denied genocide in Australia is Keith Windshuttle, who was editor of Quadrant magazine, which produced material criticizing the report.[10] Former Tasmanian Premier Ray Groom said that "there had been no killing in the island state".[168] Dr. Gary Jones, a former labour minister in Australia, has portrayed colonialism as a gift to Indigenous nations. Australian Aboriginal senator Jana Stewart, called such views a denial of First Nations' historical experiences.[169]

In Australia there are ongoing debates about the interpretation of history, called History Wars, for example, the calling of Australia's national myth as an invasion or settlement.[170][171][166][168][172] The near-destruction of Tasmania's Aboriginal population has been described as an act of genocide by historians including, Mohamed Adhikari, Benjamin Madley, and Ashley Riley Sousa.[173][123][174]

Historian Jurgen Zimmerer has written that there is denial of genocide of the Aborigines by Australian conservatives. Historian Dirk Moses says that in Australia there were many cultural-linguistic Indigenous groups, so there was not one single genocidal event by the colonizing perspective, but multiple ones: "...many genocides took place in Australia".[6] According to South African historian Colin Tatz, in the 1990s in spite of the apologies and admissions about the past, there were denialists in Australia, such as Kenneth Minogue, Ken Maddock and Ron Brunton and also politicians including John Howard, John Herron, Peter Howson, Wayne Goss, Ray Groom and Bill Hayden. Former Premier Goss insisted on the removal of words as "invasion" and "resistance" from school texts.[175]

According to Hannah Baldry there was ongoing denial: "The Australian Government appears to have long suffered a form of 'denialism' that has consistently deprived the country's Aboriginal population of acknowledgment of the crimes perpetrated against their ancestors."[176]

Russia

Some scholars describe Russia as a settler colonial state, particularly in its expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East, during which it displaced and resettled Indigenous peoples, while practicing settler colonialism.[177][178][179] The annexation of Siberia and the Far East to Russia was resisted by the Indigenous peoples, while the Cossacks often committed atrocities against them.[180] During the Cold War, new forms of Indigenous repression were practiced.[181]

Other denials

There are a number of historians that do not consider that genocide of Indigenous peoples took place in North America, including James Axtell, Robert Utley, William Rubinstein, Guenter Lewy and Gary Anderson, although some call the atrocities another name such as ethnic cleansing.[127][1] Stephen T. Katz has argued that the Holocaust is the only genocide that has occurred in history.[182][183]

Reactions to denial

Many countries in Europe have laws against Holocaust denial[184] but there are no known laws against Indigenous genocide denial. In Canada, some lawmakers want to criminalize the denial of genocide in residential schools: "They say they're being flooded with emails, letters and phone calls from people pushing back against the reports of suspected graves and skewing the history of the government-funded, church-run institutions that worked to assimilate more than 150,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis children for more than a century."[185]

Pennsylvania 1793, massacre of the Susquehannock

In 2022, the United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect issued a policy paper titled "Combating Holocaust and Genocide Denial: Protecting Survivors, Preserving Memory, and Promoting Prevention" in which genocide denial is often associated with hate speech, specifically when directed to specific identifiable groups. The report gives policy recommendations for states and UN officials in the matter of denial.[186]

Settler colonialism and genocide

Mystic Massacre 1637

There is a number of international scholars whose work established a relation between settler colonialism and genocide.[187] Ann Curthoys is an Australian historian and academic who wrote about the view of genocide scholar Leo Kuper: "Nevertheless, the course of colonization of North and South America, the West Indies, and Australia and Tasmania, [Leo] Kuper observes, has certainly been marked all too often by genocide."[188] Noam Chomsky has considered settler colonialism to be the most vicious form of imperialism, and describes the lack of self-awareness of the genocide by some Americans.[189][190][34][191]

Pulitzer Prize winning historian Bernard Baylin has said that the Dutch and English conquests were just as brutal as those of the Spanish and Portuguese, in certain places and in certain times "genocidal".[192] He says that this history, for example the Pequot War, is not erased but conveniently forgotten.[21] The different European colonizing powers were all similarly cruel in their dealings with Indigenous peoples.[193]

Slaves in the context of the Putumayo genocide of the Indigenous population of the Amazon at the hands of the Peruvian Amazon Company. 1912.

David Stannard historian and professor of American Studies at the University of Hawaii analyzed the genocidal process in two cases of colonization. He said that the British did not need massive labor as the Spanish, but land: "And therein lies the central difference between the genocide committed by the Spanish and that of the Anglo-Americans: in British America extermination was the primary goal." Thus, in British America they would clear the land of Indigenous peoples, and put the few survivors in reserves.[194]

Gregory D. Smithers, a lecturer in the Department of History at the University of Aberdeen, has weighed in as well: "Ward Churchill refers to settler colonialism in North America as 'the American holocaust', and David Stannard similarly portrayed the European colonization of the Americas as an example of 'human incineration and carnage'."[195]

Mark Levene, a historian at University of Southampton, linked colonialism and genocide: "In this, of course, we come back to the fatal nexus between the Anglo-American drive to rapid state-building and genocide." Levene has said that the authorities are silent about genocide in the case of the colonization of Australia, even though the press reports described the events.[196]

Painting of Waterloo Creek massacre by the New South Wales Military Mounted Police.

Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, an American historian, professor at California State University, describes settler colonialism as inherently genocidal from the perspective of the terms of the Genocide Convention. She pointed out that genocide does not have to be total to be genocide, as the most famous genocide (the Holocaust) of all was not total.[197]

Stephen Howe, professor in the History and Cultures of Colonialism at the University of Bristol, UK, relates colonialism with genocide and says the case for colonialism causing genocide is very strong.[198]

Historiography and genocide

Historian Samuel Totten and Professor Robert K. Hitchcock stated in their work on genocide historiography that the genocide of Indigenous peoples became an public issue for many non-Indigenous scholars until after the last part of the twentieth century.[199]

Benjamin Madley highlighted that the Genocide Convention designates genocide a crime whether committed in time of peace or war. He has argued that the violent resistance to genocide has been described as wars or battles, instead of a genocide or a war of resistance. For example, for every white man killed, a hundred [California] Indians paid the penalty with their lives.[124] He proposed a case study of the Modoc War, comparing details of both sides in the conflict, to support this point. He said that throughout the world, victims many times violently resist colonial genocide.[7]

The Canadian Historical Association has maintained that the Canadian historical profession was complicit in denial[200] and also said in a statement: ''Settler governments, whether they be colonial, imperial, federal, or provincial have worked, and arguably still work, towards the elimination of Indigenous peoples as both a distinct culture and physical group.''[201] Many historians disagreed and issued a letter against and for the claim of broad consensus in the view of this aspect of Canadian history.[202][203][204][205]

David Moshman, a professor at University of Nebraska–Lincoln, highlighted the lack of awareness of the fact that Indigenous nations are not a monolithic entity, and many have disappeared: "The nations of the Americas remain virtually oblivious to their emergence from a series of genocides that were deliberately aimed at, and succeeded in eliminating, hundreds of Indigenous cultures."[206]

Indigenous Australians chained in captivity

Julius Popper and the Selk'nam Genocide

Other personalities

Phil Fontaine, former National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, wrote:[207]

The Government of Canada currently recognizes five genocides: the Holocaust, the Holodomor, the Armenian genocide, the Rwandan genocide and Srebrenica. The time has come for Canada to formally recognize a sixth genocide, the genocide of its own aboriginal communities;

Members of the Penobscot Nation in Maine made an educational film about how settlers killed Indigenous peoples during the colonial era:[208]

The filmmakers say they simply want to ensure this history isn't whitewashed by promoting a fuller understanding of the nation's past.

Indigenous actor Russell Means wrote in 1992 about denial in the United States, inspiring the title of a book by Ward Churchill:[209]

...there's a little matter of genocide that's got to be taken into account right here at home. I'm talking about the genocide which has been perpetrated against American Indians...

In 1973, American actor Marlon Brando declined an Academy Award in protest for the representation of Native Americans in Hollywood cinema, citing killing of helpless unarmed Indigenous peoples and the theft of their land.[210]

In 2023, Indigenous leaders from Antigua and Barbuda, Aotearoa (New Zealand), Australia, the Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines issued an open letter. The signed letter requests King Charles III to acknowledge at his coronation the "horrific impacts" of colonization.[211][212][213]

Prevention

Atrocity denial may be reduced by works of history, knowledge gathering, preservation of archives, documentation of records, investigation panels, international tribunals, application of international law, search for missing persons, commemorations, public apologies, development of truth commissions, educational programs, memorials, museums, documentaries, films and other mass media. According to Johnathan Sisson, the society has the right to know the truth about historical events and facts, and the circumstances that led to massive or systematic human rights violations. He says that the state has the obligation to secure records and other evidence to prevent historical revisionism. The goal is to prevent recurrence in the future.[214][215]

Further study

Benjamin Madley studied two cases of genocide (Pequot and Yuki) analyzing four elements: statements of genocidal intent, presence of massacres, state-sponsored body-part bounties (rewards officially paid for corpses, heads and scalps) and mass death in government custody. He suggests that detailed breakdown of genocide studies by individual nation is a new direction in genocide studies: "...offering a powerful tool with which to understand genocide and combat its denial around the world."[127]

Monument at the Gnadenhutten Massacre Site, located in the cemetery at Gnadenhutten, Ohio, United States.

References

Hitchcock, Robert K. (2023). "Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States". In Der Matossian, Bedross (ed.). Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century. [Lincoln]: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 33, 35, 36, 43, 44, 46, 47. ISBN 978-1-4962-3554-1. OCLC 1374189062. Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.
"Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: A Tool for Prevention" (PDF). United Nations Office of the Prevention of Genocide. 2014. p. 1. The definitions of the crimes can be found in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their 1977 Additional Protocols, and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, among other treaties.
"Defining the Four Mass Atrocity Crimes". Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
"What is atrocity prevention? | GAAMAC". Retrieved 31 March 2023.
"Ethnic Cleansing". United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
Zimmerer, Jurgen (2004). Moses, Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 19, 51. ISBN 978-1-57181-410-4. In that case, many genocides took place in Australia, rather than being the site of a single genocidal event. (p19) The question of colonial genocide is disturbing, in part because it increases the number of mass murders regarded as genocide, and in part, too, because it calls into question the Europeanization of the globe as a modernizing project. Where the descendants of perpetrators still comprise the majority or a large proportion of the population, and control political life and public discourse, recognition of colonial genocides is even more difficult, as it undermines the image of the past on which national identity is built. (p51)
Woolford, Andrew; Benvenutto, Jeff; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Fontaine, Theodore (ed.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. pp. 9, 11, 120, 150, 160. ISBN 978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTOR j.ctv11sn770. As such it is important for the peoples of the United States and Canada to recognize their shared legacies of genocide, which have too often been hidden, ignored, forgotten, or outright denied. (p3) After all, much of North America was swindled from Indigenous peoples through the mythical but still powerful Doctrine of Discovery, the perceived right of conquest, and deceitful treaties. Restitution for colonial genocide would thus entail returning stolen territories. (p9) Thankfully a new generation of genocide scholarship is moving beyond these timeworn and irreconcilable divisions. (p11) Memory, remembering, forgetting, and denial are inseparable and critical junctures in the study and examination of genocide. Absence or suppression of memories is not merely a lack of acknowledgment of individual or collective experiences but can also be considered denial of a genocidal crime (p150). Erasure of historical memory and modification of historical narrative influence the perception of genocide. If it is possible to avoid conceptually blocking colonial genocides for a moment, we can consider denial in a colonial context. Perpetrators initiate and perpetuate denial (p160).
Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Rutgers University Press. pp. 2, 3. ISBN 978-0-8135-6162-2. JSTOR j.ctt5hjdfm. From Lemarchand's volume, it is clear that what is remembered and what is not remembered is a political choice, producing a dominant narrative that reflects the victor's version of history while silencing dissenting voices. Building on a critical genocide studies approach, this volume seeks to contribute to this conversation by critically examining cases of genocide that have been "hidden" politically, socially, culturally, or historically in accordance with broader systems of political and social power. (p2) ...the U.S. government, for most of its existence, stated openly and frequently that its policy was to destroy Native American ways of life through forced integration, forced removal, and death. An 1881 report of the U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs on the "Indian question" is indicative of the decades- long policy: "There is no one who has been a close observer of Indian history and the effect of contact of Indians with civilization who is not well satisfied that one of two things must eventually take place, to wit, either civilization or extermination of the Indian. Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on the same ground. One of the two must die." (p3)
Campbell, Bradley (2009). "Genocide as Social Control". Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 150–172. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x. JSTOR 40376129. S2CID 143902886.
Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp. 208, 230, 791–793. ISBN 978-1-136-93797-2.
"Indian Tribes and Resources for Native Americans | USAGov". www.usa.gov. Retrieved 29 March 2023. The U.S. government officially recognizes 574 Indian tribes in the contiguous 48 states and Alaska.
Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0. In Asia, for example, only one country, the Philippines, has officially adopted the term "Indigenous peoples," and established a law specifically to protect Indigenous peoples' rights. Only two countries in Africa, Burundi and Cameroon, have statements about the rights of Indigenous peoples in their constitutions.
Englert, Sai (November 2020). "Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession". Antipode. 52 (6): 1647–1666. doi:10.1111/anti.12659. S2CID 225643194.
Adhikari, Mohamed (7 September 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. S2CID 165086773.
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"Opinion | The U.S. has finally acknowledged the genocide of Armenians. What about Native Americans?". Washington Post. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
Aranda, Dario (2010). Aboriginal Argentina: Genocide, Loot and Resistance (Argentina Originaria: Genocidios, Saqueos y Resistencias) (in Spanish) (1st ed.). IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. ISBN 978-987-21900-6-4. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
Ward, Churchill, A Little Matter Of Genocide: Holocaust And Denial In The Americas 1492 To The Present (San Francisco CA: City Lights Books, 1998) pages 1-17. ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1 (paperback); ISBN 978-0-87286-343-9 (hardcover).
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Gigoux, Carlos (2 January 2022). ""Condemned to Disappear": Indigenous Genocide in Tierra del Fuego". Journal of Genocide Research. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1853359. ISSN 1462-3528.
Kaur Dhamoon, Rita (March 2016). "Re-presenting Genocide: The Canadian Museum of Human Rights and Settler Colonial Power". Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. 1 (1): 5–30. doi:10.1017/rep.2015.4. I contend that the curatorial decision of the CMHR to not use the label of genocide in the title of the core gallery on Indigenous perspectives was specifically a form of interpretive denial.
Clarke, Alan W.; Whitt, Laurelyn, eds. (2019), "North American Genocide Denial", North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 8–25, doi:10.1017/9781108348461.002, ISBN 978-1-108-42550-6, S2CID 242597726, retrieved 15 May 2023
Bartrop, Paul R. (2012). "Chapter 8. Punitive Expeditions and Massacres, Gippsland, Colorado, and the Question of Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. p. 194. ISBN 978-1-57181-411-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m. Much colonization proceeded without genocidal conflict ... But the effects of colonial settlement were quite variable, dependent on a variety of factors, such as the number of settlers, the forms of the colonizing economy and competition for productive resources, policies of the colonizing power, and attitudes to intermarriage or concubinage ... Some of the annihilations of indigenous peoples arose not so much by deliberate act, but in the course of what may be described as a genocidal process: massacres, appropriation of land, introduction of diseases, and arduous conditions of labor.
White, Richard (17 August 2016). "Naming America's Own Genocide". Retrieved 29 March 2023. In defining genocide, Madley relies on the criteria of the United Nations Genocide Convention, which has served as the basis for the genocide trials of defendants from Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and has been employed at the International Criminal Court in The Hague.
"Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales". Opera (in Spanish) (25): 29–54. 17 June 2019. doi:10.18601/16578651.n25.03. ISSN 2346-2159. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
Charny, Israel W. (February 1997). "Toward a Generic Definition of Genocide". In Andreopoulos, George J. (ed.). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8122-1616-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Stanton, Gregory (2020). "The Ten Stages of Genocide". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Phase 4. One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects or diseases. Dehumanization overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder. Phase 10. During and after genocide, lawyers, diplomats, and others who oppose forceful action often deny that these crimes meet the definition of genocide. They call them euphemisms like "ethnic cleansing" instead. They question whether intent to destroy a group can be proven, ignoring thousands of murders. They overlook deliberate imposition of conditions that destroy part of a group. They claim that only courts can determine whether there has been genocide, demanding "proof beyond a reasonable doubt", when prevention only requires action based on compelling evidence.
Feierstein, Daniel, (Hinton, Alexander Laban, editor) (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Chapter 5: Beyond the Binary Model: National Security Doctrine in Argentina as a Way of Rethinking Genocide as a Social Practice. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813561646. JSTOR j.ctt5hjdfm. pp 79. "What the genocidal cases have in common is that the perpetrators sought to annihilate their enemies both materially and symbolically. Not just their bodies but also the memory of their existence was intended to disappear, forcing the survivors to deny their own identity, as a synthesis of being and doing deﬁned like any other identity by a particular way of life. In this sense, the disappearances outlast the destruction of war: the effects of genocide do not end but only begin with the deaths of the victims. In short, the main objective of genocidal destruction is the transformation of the victims into “nothing” and the survivors into “nobodies.”"
Naimark, Norman M. (19 September 2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. pp. 49, 134, 209–211. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.
Herman, Edward S.; Chomsky, Noam (1988). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon Books. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-394-54926-2.
Jones, Adam (7 May 2020). "Chomsky and Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 76–104. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738. S2CID 218959996.
Hitchcock, Robert K.; Twedt, Tara M. (1997). "Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of genocide : critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Internet Archive (3rd ed.). New York : Routledge. pp. 353, 362. ISBN 978-0-415-94429-8. Most states, along with the United Nations, have been reluctant to criticize individual nations for their actions on the pretense that this would constitute a violation of sovereignty. They have also tended to accept government denials of genocides at face value. As a result, genocidal actions continue.
Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0.
Miles, William F. S. (2014). Scars of Partition: Postcolonial Legacies in French and British Borderlands. U of Nebraska Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8032-6771-8. Anglo-French carving of colonial space is a significant geographical legacy: nearly 40 percent of the entire length of today's international boundaries were traced by Britain and France.
Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-136-93797-2.
"Indigenous definition". Merriam-Webster. 2021. Archived from the original on 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021. of or relating to the earliest known inhabitants of a place and especially of a place that was colonized by a now-dominant group.
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Bilali, Rezarta, Yeshim Iqbal, and Samuel Freel, 'Understanding and Counteracting Genocide Denial', in Leonard S. Newman (ed.), Confronting Humanity at its Worst: Social Psychological Perspectives on Genocide (New York, 2019; online edn, Oxford Academic, 21 Nov. 2019), doi:10.1093/oso/9780190685942.003.0011
Bartrop, Paul R. (1 March 2022). "Genocide and the Defeat of Memory". Genocide Studies International. 14 (1): 9–22. doi:10.3138/gsi.2021.12.13.03. ISSN 2291-1847.
Blatz, Craig W.; Schumann, Karina; Ross, Michael (2009). "Government Apologies for Historical Injustices". Political Psychology. 30 (2): 219–241. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00689.x. JSTOR 25655387.
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Dixon, Robin (6 June 2013). "British government apologizes for colonial abuses in Kenya". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
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Furness, Hannah (30 November 2021). "Atrocity of slavery stains our history, Prince Charles tells Barbados as it ends royal rule". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
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"Governor Newsom Issues Apology to Native Americans for State's Historical Wrongdoings, Establishes Truth and Healing Council". California Governor. 18 June 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
"Germany apologizes for colonial-era genocide in Namibia". Reuters. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
Corntassel, Jeff; Holder, Cindy (1 December 2008). "Who's Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru". Human Rights Review. 9 (4): 465–489. doi:10.1007/s12142-008-0065-3. S2CID 53969690.
"Mexico marks end of last Indigenous revolt with apology". AP NEWS. 3 May 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
"Dutch PM Mark Rutte apologises for country's role in the slave trade". euronews. 19 December 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
Sterling, Toby (1 July 2023). "King apologises for Netherlands' historic role in slavery". Reuters. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
Cineas, Fabiola (17 January 2023). "New Zealand's Māori fought for reparations — and won". Vox. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
"Jan. 17, 1893 | Hawaiian Monarchy Overthrown by America-Backed Businessmen". The Learning Network. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2023. In 1993, Congress issued an apology to the people of Hawaii for the U.S. government's role in the overthrow and acknowledged that 'the native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty'.
"A sorry saga: Obama signs Native American apology resolution; fails to draw attention to it | Indian Law Resource Center". indianlaw.org. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
Gover, Kevin (2000). "Remarks of Kevin Gover, Assistant Secretary Indian Affairs: Address to Tribal Leaders". Journal of American Indian Education. 39 (2): 4–6. JSTOR 24398427.
Davidson, Helen (22 September 2014). "John Howard: there was no genocide against Indigenous Australians". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
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Yardley, Jim; Neuman, William (10 July 2015). "In Bolivia, Pope Francis Apologizes for Church's 'Grave Sins'". The New York Times.
"Pope apologizes for 'catastrophic' school policy in Canada". AP NEWS. 25 July 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
"Pope Francis: It was a genocide against indigenous peoples – Vatican News". www.vaticannews.va. 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2023. It's true, I didn't use the word because it didn't come to my mind, but I described the genocide and asked for forgiveness, pardon for this activity that is genocidal. For example, I condemned this too: taking away children, changing culture, changing mentality, changing traditions, changing a race, let's put it that way, an entire culture. Yes, genocide is a technical word. I didn't use it because it didn't come to my mind, but I described it... It's true, yes, yes, it's genocide. You can all stay calm about this. You can report that I said that it was genocide.
"Vatican rejects doctrine that fueled centuries of colonialism". AP NEWS. 30 March 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
"Bank of England says sorry for slave links as UK faces past". AP News. 19 June 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
Jolly, Jasper (18 June 2020). "Bank of England apologises for role of former directors in slave trade". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
Sanders, Leanne (2 May 2022). "'I am ashamed, I am horrified': Archbishop of Canterbury expresses remorse over church's role residential schools". APTN News.
Bush, Peter G. (2015). "The Canadian Churches' Apologies for Colonialism and Residential Schools, 1986–1998". Peace Research. 47 (1/2): 47–70. JSTOR 26382582.
Handy, Gemma (24 April 2018). "Archaeologists say early Caribbeans were not 'savage cannibals', as colonists wrote". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
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Rebecca Earle, The Body of the Conquistador: Food, race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700. New York: Cambridge University Press 2012, pp. 123–124.
Brantlinger, Patrick (2011). Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians (1 ed.). Cornell University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8014-5019-8. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt7zgmt. Dark Vanishings (2003) analyzed the pervasive discourse of blaming the victim that treated many indigenous populations as causing their own extinction. Savagery was supposedly a principal cause; besides warfare, savages practiced infanticide, widow strangling, and cannibalism, all held to be self-exterminating customs. It was frequently also asserted that many or perhaps all 'primitive races' were doomed by the forward march of 'the white man' and 'civilization'.
Stannard, David E. (1993). American holocaust : the conquest of the New World. Internet Archive. New York : Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0. If the assertions of Ortiz and others regarding the habits of the Indians were fabrications, they were not fabrications without design. From the Spaniards' enumerations of what they claimed were the disgusting food customs of the Indians (including cannibalism, but also the consumption of insects and other items regarded as unfit for human diets) to the Indians' supposed nakedness and absence of agriculture, their sexual deviance and licentiousness, their brutish ignorance, their lack of advanced weaponry and iron, and their irremediable idolatry, the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating.
Stannard, David E. (1993). American holocaust : the conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 63–67. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Fernández-Santamaria, José A. (1975). "Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Nature of the American Indians". The Americas. 31 (4): 434–451. doi:10.2307/980012. JSTOR 980012. S2CID 147379509.
"Chapter 5. Genocide in Tasmania?". Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. 2012. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-57181-411-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m. This is equally true of genocide-in two ways. For all individual German to kill a Jew or a Gypsy, just because of the race of the victim, is an act of genocide. But to accuse the machinery of State under which such killings took place as an act of policy requires proof that this is their aim. There is ample proof that this was the aim of the "Final Solution". Jews were to be killed because they were not human, just as the Tasmanian Aborigines were hunted to death for the same reason.
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (12 May 2016). "Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide | History News Network". historynewsnetwork.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
Treuer, David (13 May 2016). "Review: The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
Tatz, Colin (2001). "Confronting Australian genocide". Aboriginal History. 25: 16–36. JSTOR 45135469. PMID 19514155. Denialism takes several forms. First, the denial of any past genocidal behavior, whether physical killing or child removal. Second, the somewhat bizarre counterview that whites have been the victims. Third, the hypothesis that concentration on unmitigated gloom, or on the black armband view of history, overwhelms the reality that there has been more good than bad in Australian race relations.
Wolfe, Patrick (December 2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research. 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. S2CID 143873621.
Moloney, Pat (2011). "Hobbes, Savagery, and International Anarchy". The American Political Science Review. 105 (1): 189–204. doi:10.1017/S0003055410000511. JSTOR 41480834. S2CID 144104936.
Hitchcock, Robert (2014). "Indigenous Populations". In Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (eds.). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. pp. 4239–4246. ISBN 978-1-61069-364-6.
Kuper, Leo (1991). "When Denial Becomes Routine". Social Education. 55 (2): 121–23. OCLC 425009321. ERIC EJ427728 ProQuest 210628314.
Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (January 2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 145377834.
Zinn, Howard (2005). A People's History of the United States. Internet Archive. HarperPerennial Modern Classics. ISBN 978-0-06-083865-2. From first grade to graduate school, I was given no inkling that the landing of Christopher Columbus in the New World initiated a genocide, in which the indigenous population of Hispaniola was annihilated. Or that this was just the first stage of what was presented as a benign expansion of the new nation (Louisiana "Purchase," Florida "Purchase," Mexican "Cession"), but which involved the violent expulsion of Indians, accompanied by unspeakable atrocities, from every square mile of the continent, until there was nothing to do with them but herd them into reservations. (Afterword)
Barkan, Elazar (2003). "Chapter 6. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples". In Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (eds.). The specter of genocide : mass murder in historical perspective. Internet Archive. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp. 131, 138–139. ISBN 978-0-521-82063-9. The United States had its own long-standing boarding schools for Native American children with a similar extent of abuse. However, the term Education for Extinction is yet to capture public attention as a human rights issue. The American indigenous dilemma is far less central to U.S. mainstream politics than in any of the other ex-British colonies. The notion of genocide, while warranted as much or more than in those other countries, is still confined to radical writers. It is intriguing, indeed, that no mainstream American historians have written about the fate of the Native Americans as genocide. (p131) Thus, the European guilt was at least a collective myopia, a deep failure to acknowledge the equality of indigenous people and the vast number and varied array of atrocities and genocides inflicted upon them. More likely this has been a willful denial of responsibility and guilt, hiding behind the structural explanation of biological agents. It is time to reverse course and acknowledge the responsibility and extent of the destruction purposefully inflicted by colonialism, although not upon all indigenous peoples, and not in similar fashion. (p138-139)
Jones, Adam (2008). Crimes Against Humanity : a Beginner's Guide. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 33. ISBN 9781851686018. Through a devastating combination of genocidal massacre, disease, malnutrition, and slave labor, perhaps ninety-five percent of the indigenous population of the Americas was wiped out following the arrival of Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Danish, Dutch, and Russian forces. In some places, such as Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), the obliteration of the native population – partly purposive, partly unexpected via infectious disease – was nearly total. The killing was rationalized by myths of civilizational superiority and the inevitability of indigenous peoples' disappearance. Sometimes the historical revisionism was so radical as to depict colonized territories as virgin lands, effectively free of indigenous populations at the time of Western 'discovery'.
Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. HarperCollins. pp. 12, 16, 262. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0.
Stannard, David E. (1992). "Genocide in the Americas". The Nation. 255 (12): 430–434.
Hitchens, Christopher (19 October 1992). "Minority Report". The Nation. Vol. 255, no. 12.
Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. To Hitchens, anyone who refused to join him in celebrating with "great vim and gusto" the annihilation of the native peoples of the Americas was (in his words) self-hating, ridiculous, ignorant, and sinister. People who regard critically the genocide that was carried out in America's past, Hitchens continued, are simply reactionary, since such grossly inhuman atrocities "happen to be the way history is made". And thus "to complain about them is as empty as complaint about climatic, geological or tectonic shift". Moreover, he added, such violence is worth glorifying since it more often than not has been for the long-term betterment of humankind, as in the United States today, where the extermination of the Native Americans has brought about "a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation".
Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. These are, of course, precisely the same sort of retrospective justifications for genocide that would have been offered by the descendants of Nazi storm troopers and SS doctors had the Third Reich ultimately had its way: that is, however distasteful the means, the extermination of the Jews was thoroughly warranted given the beneficial ends that were accomplished. In this light it is worth considering again what the reaction would be in Europe and elsewhere if the equivalent of the actual views of Krauthammer and Schlesinger and Hitchens were expressed today by the respectable press in Germany—but with Jews, not Native Americans, as the people whose historical near-extermination was being celebrated. And there is no doubt whatsoever that if that were to happen, alarm bells announcing a frightening and unparalleled postwar resurgence of German neo-Nazism would, quite justifiably, be going off immediately throughout the world.
Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. pp. 330–331. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. The willful maintenance of public ignorance regarding the genocidal and racist horrors against indigenous peoples that have been and are being perpetrated by many nations of the Western Hemisphere, including the United States—which contributes to the construction of a museum to commemorate genocide only if the killing occurred half a world away—is consciously aided and abetted and legitimized by the actions of the Jewish uniqueness advocates we have been discussing....and so all people of conscience must be on guard against Holocaust deniers who, in many cases, would like nothing better than to see mass violence against Jews start again. By that same token, however, as we consider the terrible history and the ongoing campaigns of genocide against the indigenous inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere...
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Churchill, Ward (2000). Charny, Israel W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. p. 437. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1. The size of the aggregate native North American population in 1500 is currently estimated at about 15 million. By 1890 it had been reduced by some 97.5 percent, to less than a quarter-million. That year, it was announced that "aboriginal land-holdings" amounted to only 2.5 percent of US territory. Anglo-America's professed "manifest destiny" to acquire "living space" by liquidating the "inferior" peoples who owned it had been fulfilled.
Kuper, Leo (1982). Genocide : its political use in the twentieth century. Internet Archive. New Haven : Yale University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-300-02795-2. In contemporary extra-judicial discussions of allegations of genocide, the question of intent has become a controversial issue, providing a ready basis for denial of guilt.
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Madley, Benjamin (2004). "Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 167–192. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225930. S2CID 145079658.
Madley, Benjamin (2016). An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0300181364.
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Lindsay, Brendan C. (March 2015). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846-1873. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6966-8.
Madley, Benjamin (2015). "Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods". The American Historical Review. 120 (1): 106,107,110,111,120,132,133,134. doi:10.1093/ahr/120.1.98. JSTOR 43696337. The study of massacres defined here as predominantly one-sided intentional killings of five or more noncombatants or relatively poorly armed or disarmed combatants, often by surprise and with little or no quarter.
Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (4 December 2013). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. S2CID 145377834.
Trafzer, Clifford E.; Lorimer, Michelle (January 2014). "Silencing California Indian Genocide in Social Studies Texts". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 64–82. doi:10.1177/0002764213495032. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 144356070.
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Kupfer, Matthew (28 June 2021). "Indigenous people ask Canadians to 'put their pride aside' and reflect this Canada Day". CBC News. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
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MacDonald, David B. (2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research. 17 (4): 411–431. doi:10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583. S2CID 74512843.
"Trudeau says 'denialism' rising as nation marks holiday for indigenous reconciliation". Reuters. 1 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
Logan, Tricia E. (2014). "Memory, Erasure, and National Myth". In Woolford, Andrew (ed.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. p. 149. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770. ISBN 978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTOR j.ctv11sn770. Canada, a country with oft-recounted histories of Indigenous origins and colonial legacies, still maintains a memory block in terms of the atrocities it committed to build the Canadian state. There is nothing more comforting in a colonial history of nation building than an erasure or denial of the true costs of colonial gains. The comforting narrative becomes the dominant and publicly consumed narrative.
Monkman, Lenard (17 May 2019). "Genocide against Indigenous Peoples recognized by Canadian Museum for Human Rights". Cbc.ca.
Carleton, Sean (2 October 2021). "'I don't need any more education': Senator Lynn Beyak, residential school denialism, and attacks on truth and reconciliation in Canada". Settler Colonial Studies. 11 (4): 466–486. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2021.1935574. ISSN 2201-473X. S2CID 236273703.
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Murphy, Philip (17 April 2023). "It makes a good story – but the cover-up of Britain's savage treatment of the Mau Mau was exaggerated". Retrieved 17 April 2023.
Berman, Bruce (1990). Control & Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination. James Currey Publishers. ISBN 978-0-85255-069-4.
Gerdziunas, Benas (17 October 2017). "Belgium's genocidal colonial legacy haunts the country's future". The Independent. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
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Hochschild, Adam (2002). King Leopold's ghost : a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa. Internet Archive. London : Pan. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-330-49233-1.
Bates, Stephen (13 May 1999). "The hidden holocaust". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
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"How to access the 'Bringing them home' report, community guide, video and education module". HREOC. Archived from the original on 23 March 2007. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
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Manne, Robert (18 November 2014). "In Denial, The stolen generations and the Right". Quarterly Essay. Retrieved 1 April 2023. ...the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, seized his opportunity. He told a commercial radio audience in Melbourne that the revelation that Lowitja O'Donoghue was not stolen was a "highly significant" fact, one, he implied, which vindicated his government's famous denial of the existence of the stolen generations and his even more famous refusal to apologize... It was the magazine Quadrant, however, under the editorship of Padraic McGuinness, that marshalled the troops and galvanised the disparate voices of opposition to Bringing them home into what amounted to a serious and effective political campaign.
Frost, Natasha (26 July 2023). "Colonization Was the 'Luckiest Thing' to Happen to Australia, Ex-Leader Says". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
Lemarchand, Rene (2011). Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 12, 88. ISBN 978-0-8122-2263-0. JSTOR j.ctt3fhnm9. The colonial genocide perpetrated against Aborigines produced within the colonial society a deep and enduring ambiguity about the fate of the original Aborigines and the role of colonists in generating that fate. This ambiguity consisted of a deep-seated moral unease about what had occurred and a culture of denial that was expressed in numerous ways, but most obviously in the myth of inevitable extinction.
Torre, Giovanni (19 July 2023). "Anti-Voice campaigner describes colonialism as a "gift" to Aboriginal people". National Indigenous Times.
Ried, James (30 March 2016). "'Invaded' not settled: UNSW rewrites history". The New Daily. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
Graham, Chris (30 March 2016). "Australian university accused of 'rewriting history' over British invasion language". The Telegraph. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
Allam, Lorena; Evershed, Nick (3 March 2019). "The killing times: the massacres of Aboriginal people Australia must confront". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
Adhikari, Mohamed (2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. p. xxix. ISBN 978-1-64792-054-8.
Sousa, Ashley Riley (June 2004). "'They will be hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed!': a comparative study of genocide in California and Tasmania". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 193–209. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225949. S2CID 109131060.
Tatz, Colin M. (2003). With intent to destroy: reflecting on genocide. New York, N.Y: Verso. pp. 132, 133. ISBN 9781859845509.
Baldry, Hannah; McKeon, Ailsa; McDougall, Scott (2 November 2015). "Queensland's Frontier Killing Times – Facing Up To Genocide". QUT Law Review. 15 (1). doi:10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.583.
Sunderland, Willard (2000). "The 'Colonization Question': Visions of Colonization in Late Imperial Russia". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 48 (2): 210–232. JSTOR 41050526.
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"UN defines Holocaust denial in new resolution". BBC News. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
Stefanovich, Olivia (18 February 2023). "NDP MP calls for hate speech law to combat residential school 'denialism'". CBC News.
"Combating Holocaust and Genocide Denial: Protecting Survivors, Preserving Memory, and Promoting Prevention" (PDF). un.org. June 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
Rose-Redwood, Reuben (2 July 2018). "Genocide hoax tests ethics of academic publishing". The Conversation. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
Stone, Dan, ed. (2008). The Historiography of Genocide. p. 26. doi:10.1057/9780230297784. ISBN 978-0-230-27955-1.
Chomsky, Noam (1 September 2010). "Monthly Review | Genocide Denial with a Vengeance: Old and New Imperial Norms". Monthly Review. p. 16. Retrieved 30 March 2023. Settler colonialism, commonly the most vicious form of imperial conquest, provides striking illustrations. The English colonists in North America had no doubts about what they were doing. Revolutionary War hero General Henry Knox, the first Secretary of War in the newly liberated American colonies, described "the utter extirpation of all the Indians in most populous parts of the Union" by means "more destructive to the Indian natives than the conduct of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru", which would have been no small achievement. In his later years, President John Quincy Adams recognized the fate of "that hapless race of native Americans, which we are exterminating with such merciless and perfidious cruelty, [to be] among the heinous sins of this nation, for which I believe God will one day bring [it] to judgement".
Chomsky, Noam; Barsamian, David (1992). Chronicles of dissent : interviews with David Barsamian. Internet Archive. Monroe, Me. : Common Courage Press ; Stirling, Scotland : AK Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-9628838-8-0. Take just north of the Rio Grande, where once there were maybe 10 or 12 million native Americans. By 1900 there were about 200,000. In the Andean region and Mexico there were very extensive Indian societies, and they're mostly gone. Many of them were just totally murdered or wiped out, others succumbed to European-brought diseases. This is massive genocide, long before the emergence of the twentieth century nation-state. It may be one of the most, if not the most extreme example from history, but far from the only one. These are facts that we don't recognize.
Chomsky, Noam (3 November 2011). "Noam Chomsky: can revolutionary pacificism deliver peace?". The Conversation. Retrieved 26 October 2023. The calculation is off by tens of millions, and the "vastness" included advanced civilizations, facts well known to those who choose to know decades ago. No letters appeared reacting to this truly colossal case of genocide denial.
Bailyn, Bernard (2012). "Introduction". The barbarous years : the peopling of British North America : the conflict of civilizations, 1600-1675. Internet Archive. New York : Alfred A. Knopf. pp. XV. ISBN 978-0-394-51570-0.
Sale, Kirkpatrick (1990). The conquest of paradise : Christopher Columbus and the Columbian legacy. Internet Archive. New York : Knopf : Distributed by Random House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-394-57429-5. It is important to realize that there is not a single European nation which, when the opportunity came, did not engage in practices as vicious and cruel as those of Spain—and in the case of England, worse—with very much the same sort of demographic consequences. The Spanish, for all their faults, at least thought it right to convert, and in many cases to marry, the Indians, regarding them on a plane of humanity, capable of receiving Christian precepts and European civilization, above that generally accorded by other colonizers.
Stannard, David E. (1994). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Smithers, Gregory D.; Moses, A. Dirk (15 April 2010). "Rethinking Genocide in North America". Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. OUP Oxford. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-19-161361-6.
Levene, Mark (2005). Genocide in the age of the nation state, vol. 2: the rise of the west and the coming of genocide. New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 73, 84. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4. What, however, does make these Australian moments of genocide particularly noteworthy – if not in themselves that unusual – is not only the bizarre disjuncture between their regular reportage in the local and national press and official denial, or more accurately silence on the matter on the part of the authorities, but the peculiar lengths to which the latter were prepared to go to give the appearance that such 'extra-judicial' killings would not be tolerated and that the pacification of hostile tribes would rather – somehow – proceed by due legal process.
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8070-0041-0. Settler colonialism is inherently genocidal in terms of the genocide convention. In the case of the British North American colonies and the United States, not only extermination and removal were practiced but also the disappearing of the prior existence of Indigenous peoples, and this continues to be perpetuated in local histories.
Howe, Stephen (2010). "Colonising and Exterminating? Memories of Imperial Violence in Britain and France". Histoire@Politique. 11 (2): 12. doi:10.3917/hp.011.0012. The crucial relevance of this to debates over colonial violence lies in the argument, made in recent years in many different contexts and with unprecedented force, that settler colonialism is inherently bound up with extreme, pervasive, structural and even genocidal violence....And quite simply, since Britain (and, before a United Kingdom or a compound British identity were formed, England) founded more and more successful, 'explosive' settler colonies than anyone else, so probably more alleged or potential cases of pre-twentieth century genocide occurred in the British world than anywhere outside it...For British North America and for Australasia, however, the case for numerous genocidal episodes –by even restricted definitions, since large-scale deliberate killing was repeatedly involved– seems to me very strong.
Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0. ...It was only in the latter part of the twentieth century that the genocide of Indigenous peoples started to become a significant issue for human rights activists, non-governmental organizations, international development and finance institutions, such as the United Nations and the World Bank, and indigenous and other community-based organizations... pp2. "Invisible" and "silent" genocide is just as much genocide as those cases that claim the attention of the mass media and outrage the masses across the globe (if, in fact, that actually happens) Part and parcel of being human rights or genocide scholars involves, or so it seems to us. being activists who seek, along with indigenous peoples around the world, to promote human rights and social justice for all. pp13.
Rocksborough-Smith, Ian (11 October 2021). "Canada is Going through its Own History Wars". History News Network. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
"The History of Violence Against Indigenous Peoples Fully Warrants the Use of the Word "Genocide"". Canadian Historical Association. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
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"Opinion: The past is present: What role should Canada's historians play in reconciliation? The question has proved surprisingly controversial". The Globe and Mail. 13 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
Carleton, Sean; Woolford, Andrew. "Ignore debaters and denialists, Canada's treatment of Indigenous Peoples fits the definition of genocide". The Royal Society of Canada.
Moshman, David (15 May 2007). "Us and Them: Identity and Genocide". Identity. 7 (2): 115–135. doi:10.1080/15283480701326034. S2CID 143561036.
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Sharp, David (4 December 2021). "Penobscots don't want ancestors' scalping to be whitewashed". rhe Associated PRess. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
Churchill, Ward (1997). "Preface". A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas 1492 to the Present. City Lights Books. ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1.
Brando, Marlon (30 March 1973). "The New York Times: Best Pictures". archive.nytimes.com. Retrieved 29 March 2023. When they laid down their arms, we murdered them. We lied to them. We cheated them out of their lands. We starved them into signing fraudulent agreements that we called treaties which we never kept. We turned them into beggars on a continent that gave life for as long as life can remember. And by any interpretation of history, however twisted, we did not do right. We were not lawful nor were we just in what we did.
"Māori Party joins call for King Charles to own up to 'horrific impacts' of colonisation at coronation". NZ Herald. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
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Stanton, Gregory (2020). "10 Stages of Genocide". Genocide Watch. Retrieved 31 March 2023. The best response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts. There the evidence can be heard, and the perpetrators punished.... When possible, local proceedings should provide forums for hearings of the evidence against perpetrators who were not the main leaders and planners of a genocide, with opportunities for restitution and reconciliation. The Rwandan gaçaça trials are one example. Justice should be accompanied by education in schools and the media about the facts of a genocide, the suffering it caused its victims, the motivations of its perpetrators, and the need for restoration of the rights of its victims.
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[:9-1] Hitchcock, Robert K. (2023). "Denial of Genocide of Indigenous People in the United States". In Der Matossian, Bedross (ed.). Denial of genocides in the twenty-first century. [Lincoln]: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 33, 35, 36, 43, 44, 46, 47. ISBN 978-1-4962-3554-1. OCLC 1374189062. Genocide scholars Susan Chavez Cameron and Loan T. Phan see American Indians as having gone through the ten stages of genocide identified by Stanton. Failure to acknowledge genocide has harmful social and psychological impacts on the victims of genocide, and it leaves the perpetrators in positions of power vis-a-vis others in their societies. As Agnieszka Bienczyk-Missala points out, denial or negation relating to mass crimes consists of denying scientifically proven historical facts by deliberately concealing them and spreading false and misleading information. She goes on to say that the consequences of negationism are of ethical, legal, social, and political character.

[prevention-2] "Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: A Tool for Prevention" (PDF). United Nations Office of the Prevention of Genocide. 2014. p. 1. The definitions of the crimes can be found in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their 1977 Additional Protocols, and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, among other treaties.

[:5-3] "Defining the Four Mass Atrocity Crimes". Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved 31 March 2023.

[4] "What is atrocity prevention? | GAAMAC". Retrieved 31 March 2023.

[5] "Ethnic Cleansing". United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Retrieved 11 October 2023.

[:7-6] Zimmerer, Jurgen (2004). Moses, Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 19, 51. ISBN 978-1-57181-410-4. In that case, many genocides took place in Australia, rather than being the site of a single genocidal event. (p19) The question of colonial genocide is disturbing, in part because it increases the number of mass murders regarded as genocide, and in part, too, because it calls into question the Europeanization of the globe as a modernizing project. Where the descendants of perpetrators still comprise the majority or a large proportion of the population, and control political life and public discourse, recognition of colonial genocides is even more difficult, as it undermines the image of the past on which national identity is built. (p51)

[:1-7] Woolford, Andrew; Benvenutto, Jeff; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Fontaine, Theodore (ed.). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. pp. 9, 11, 120, 150, 160. ISBN 978-0-8223-5763-6. JSTOR j.ctv11sn770. As such it is important for the peoples of the United States and Canada to recognize their shared legacies of genocide, which have too often been hidden, ignored, forgotten, or outright denied. (p3) After all, much of North America was swindled from Indigenous peoples through the mythical but still powerful Doctrine of Discovery, the perceived right of conquest, and deceitful treaties. Restitution for colonial genocide would thus entail returning stolen territories. (p9) Thankfully a new generation of genocide scholarship is moving beyond these timeworn and irreconcilable divisions. (p11) Memory, remembering, forgetting, and denial are inseparable and critical junctures in the study and examination of genocide. Absence or suppression of memories is not merely a lack of acknowledgment of individual or collective experiences but can also be considered denial of a genocidal crime (p150). Erasure of historical memory and modification of historical narrative influence the perception of genocide. If it is possible to avoid conceptually blocking colonial genocides for a moment, we can consider denial in a colonial context. Perpetrators initiate and perpetuate denial (p160).

[8] Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Rutgers University Press. pp. 2, 3. ISBN 978-0-8135-6162-2. JSTOR j.ctt5hjdfm. From Lemarchand's volume, it is clear that what is remembered and what is not remembered is a political choice, producing a dominant narrative that reflects the victor's version of history while silencing dissenting voices. Building on a critical genocide studies approach, this volume seeks to contribute to this conversation by critically examining cases of genocide that have been "hidden" politically, socially, culturally, or historically in accordance with broader systems of political and social power. (p2) ...the U.S. government, for most of its existence, stated openly and frequently that its policy was to destroy Native American ways of life through forced integration, forced removal, and death. An 1881 report of the U.S. commissioner of Indian Affairs on the "Indian question" is indicative of the decades- long policy: "There is no one who has been a close observer of Indian history and the effect of contact of Indians with civilization who is not well satisfied that one of two things must eventually take place, to wit, either civilization or extermination of the Indian. Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on the same ground. One of the two must die." (p3)

[9] Campbell, Bradley (2009). "Genocide as Social Control". Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 150–172. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x. JSTOR 40376129. S2CID 143902886.

[:10-10] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. pp. 208, 230, 791–793. ISBN 978-1-136-93797-2.

[11] "Indian Tribes and Resources for Native Americans | USAGov". www.usa.gov. Retrieved 29 March 2023. The U.S. government officially recognizes 574 Indian tribes in the contiguous 48 states and Alaska.

[12] Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0. In Asia, for example, only one country, the Philippines, has officially adopted the term "Indigenous peoples," and established a law specifically to protect Indigenous peoples' rights. Only two countries in Africa, Burundi and Cameroon, have statements about the rights of Indigenous peoples in their constitutions.

[13] Englert, Sai (November 2020). "Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession". Antipode. 52 (6): 1647–1666. doi:10.1111/anti.12659. S2CID 225643194.

[Adhikari2017-14] Adhikari, Mohamed (7 September 2017). "Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders". African Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863. S2CID 165086773.

[Adhikari2022-15] Adhikari, Mohamed (2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-1-64792-054-8.

[16] Ibrahim, Emily Prey, Azeem (11 October 2021). "The United States Must Reckon With Its Own Genocides". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 18 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[17] "Opinion | The U.S. has finally acknowledged the genocide of Armenians. What about Native Americans?". Washington Post. Retrieved 18 March 2023.

[18] Aranda, Dario (2010). Aboriginal Argentina: Genocide, Loot and Resistance (Argentina Originaria: Genocidios, Saqueos y Resistencias) (in Spanish) (1st ed.). IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. ISBN 978-987-21900-6-4. Retrieved 18 March 2023.

[ChurchillLittle-19] Ward, Churchill, A Little Matter Of Genocide: Holocaust And Denial In The Americas 1492 To The Present (San Francisco CA: City Lights Books, 1998) pages 1-17. ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1 (paperback); ISBN 978-0-87286-343-9 (hardcover).

[ChurchillForbid-20] Churchill, Ward, "Forbidding the "G-Word": Holocaust Denial as Judicial Doctrine in Canada," Archived 31 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Other Voices 2.1 (February 2000), accessed 13 February 2007.

[:8-21] Rosenbaum, Ron. "The Shocking Savagery of America's Early History". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 15 April 2023.

[22] Allard-Tremblay, Yann; Coburn, Elaine (May 2023). "The Flying Heads of Settler Colonialism; or the Ideological Erasures of Indigenous Peoples in Political Theorizing". Political Studies. 71 (2): 359–378. doi:10.1177/00323217211018127. ISSN 0032-3217.

[23] Gigoux, Carlos (2 January 2022). ""Condemned to Disappear": Indigenous Genocide in Tierra del Fuego". Journal of Genocide Research. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1853359. ISSN 1462-3528.

[Re-presenting_Genocide:_The_Canadian_Museum_of_Human_Rights-24] Kaur Dhamoon, Rita (March 2016). "Re-presenting Genocide: The Canadian Museum of Human Rights and Settler Colonial Power". Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. 1 (1): 5–30. doi:10.1017/rep.2015.4. I contend that the curatorial decision of the CMHR to not use the label of genocide in the title of the core gallery on Indigenous perspectives was specifically a form of interpretive denial.

[:12-25] Clarke, Alan W.; Whitt, Laurelyn, eds. (2019), "North American Genocide Denial", North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 8–25, doi:10.1017/9781108348461.002, ISBN 978-1-108-42550-6, S2CID 242597726, retrieved 15 May 2023

[26] Bartrop, Paul R. (2012). "Chapter 8. Punitive Expeditions and Massacres, Gippsland, Colorado, and the Question of Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. p. 194. ISBN 978-1-57181-411-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m. Much colonization proceeded without genocidal conflict ... But the effects of colonial settlement were quite variable, dependent on a variety of factors, such as the number of settlers, the forms of the colonizing economy and competition for productive resources, policies of the colonizing power, and attitudes to intermarriage or concubinage ... Some of the annihilations of indigenous peoples arose not so much by deliberate act, but in the course of what may be described as a genocidal process: massacres, appropriation of land, introduction of diseases, and arduous conditions of labor.

[27] White, Richard (17 August 2016). "Naming America's Own Genocide". Retrieved 29 March 2023. In defining genocide, Madley relies on the criteria of the United Nations Genocide Convention, which has served as the basis for the genocide trials of defendants from Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia and has been employed at the International Criminal Court in The Hague.

[28] "Pueblos indígenas como víctimas de los genocidios pasados y actuales". Opera (in Spanish) (25): 29–54. 17 June 2019. doi:10.18601/16578651.n25.03. ISSN 2346-2159. Retrieved 26 September 2023.

[29] Charny, Israel W. (February 1997). "Toward a Generic Definition of Genocide". In Andreopoulos, George J. (ed.). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-8122-1616-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[tenstages2-30] Stanton, Gregory (2020). "The Ten Stages of Genocide". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Phase 4. One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects or diseases. Dehumanization overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder. Phase 10. During and after genocide, lawyers, diplomats, and others who oppose forceful action often deny that these crimes meet the definition of genocide. They call them euphemisms like "ethnic cleansing" instead. They question whether intent to destroy a group can be proven, ignoring thousands of murders. They overlook deliberate imposition of conditions that destroy part of a group. They claim that only courts can determine whether there has been genocide, demanding "proof beyond a reasonable doubt", when prevention only requires action based on compelling evidence.

[31] Feierstein, Daniel, (Hinton, Alexander Laban, editor) (2014). Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory. Chapter 5: Beyond the Binary Model: National Security Doctrine in Argentina as a Way of Rethinking Genocide as a Social Practice. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813561646. JSTOR j.ctt5hjdfm. pp 79. "What the genocidal cases have in common is that the perpetrators sought to annihilate their enemies both materially and symbolically. Not just their bodies but also the memory of their existence was intended to disappear, forcing the survivors to deny their own identity, as a synthesis of being and doing deﬁned like any other identity by a particular way of life. In this sense, the disappearances outlast the destruction of war: the effects of genocide do not end but only begin with the deaths of the victims. In short, the main objective of genocidal destruction is the transformation of the victims into “nothing” and the survivors into “nobodies.”"

[32] Naimark, Norman M. (19 September 2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. pp. 49, 134, 209–211. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.

[33] Herman, Edward S.; Chomsky, Noam (1988). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon Books. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-394-54926-2.

[Jones2020-34] Jones, Adam (7 May 2020). "Chomsky and Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 76–104. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738. S2CID 218959996.

[:6-35] Hitchcock, Robert K.; Twedt, Tara M. (1997). "Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of genocide : critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Internet Archive (3rd ed.). New York : Routledge. pp. 353, 362. ISBN 978-0-415-94429-8. Most states, along with the United Nations, have been reluctant to criticize individual nations for their actions on the pretense that this would constitute a violation of sovereignty. They have also tended to accept government denials of genocides at face value. As a result, genocidal actions continue.

[36] Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0.

[37] Miles, William F. S. (2014). Scars of Partition: Postcolonial Legacies in French and British Borderlands. U of Nebraska Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8032-6771-8. Anglo-French carving of colonial space is a significant geographical legacy: nearly 40 percent of the entire length of today's international boundaries were traced by Britain and France.

[38] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-136-93797-2.

[39] "Indigenous definition". Merriam-Webster. 2021. Archived from the original on 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021. of or relating to the earliest known inhabitants of a place and especially of a place that was colonized by a now-dominant group.

[40] "Indigenous peoples rights are human rights". Amnesty International. Retrieved 12 October 2023.

[41] Nations, United. "Indigenous Peoples". United Nations. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[42] Bilali, Rezarta, Yeshim Iqbal, and Samuel Freel, 'Understanding and Counteracting Genocide Denial', in Leonard S. Newman (ed.), Confronting Humanity at its Worst: Social Psychological Perspectives on Genocide (New York, 2019; online edn, Oxford Academic, 21 Nov. 2019), doi:10.1093/oso/9780190685942.003.0011

[43] Bartrop, Paul R. (1 March 2022). "Genocide and the Defeat of Memory". Genocide Studies International. 14 (1): 9–22. doi:10.3138/gsi.2021.12.13.03. ISSN 2291-1847.

[44] Blatz, Craig W.; Schumann, Karina; Ross, Michael (2009). "Government Apologies for Historical Injustices". Political Psychology. 30 (2): 219–241. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00689.x. JSTOR 25655387.

[45] "Sentencia Napalpí". Argentina.gob.ar (in Spanish). 27 March 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2023.

[Australian_Government_Official_Website-46] "Official Australian Government Website – Sorry Day and the Stolen Generation". Australian Government. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2012.

[47] "'Keating told the truth': Stan Grant, Larissa Behrendt and others remember the Redfern speech 30 years on". The Guardian. 9 December 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[:0-48] Lightfoot, Sheryl (2015). "Settler-State Apologies to Indigenous Peoples: A Normative Framework and Comparative Assessment". Native American and Indigenous Studies. 2 (1): 15–39. doi:10.5749/natiindistudj.2.1.0015. S2CID 156826767.

[49] "Belgian king expresses 'deepest regrets' for wounds inflicted in Congo". euronews. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[50] "Belgian king expresses regrets for colonial abuses". BBC News. 30 June 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.

[51] Picheta, Rob (1 July 2020). "Belgium's King sends 'regrets' to Congo for Leopold II atrocities – but doesn't apologize". CNN. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

[52] "Belgium apology for mixed-race kidnappings in colonial era". BBC News. 4 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2021.

[53] Schreuer, Milan (4 April 2019). "Belgium Apologizes for Kidnapping Children From African Colonies". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2021.

[54] Dixon, Robin (6 June 2013). "British government apologizes for colonial abuses in Kenya". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[55] "Prince Charles acknowledges UK role in horror of slave trade". Reuters. 5 November 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2023.

[56] "Prince William expresses sorrow for slavery in Jamaica visit". AP NEWS. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2023.

[57] Furness, Hannah (30 November 2021). "Atrocity of slavery stains our history, Prince Charles tells Barbados as it ends royal rule". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 9 May 2023.

[58] "Text of Stephen Harper's residential schools apology". CTVNews. 11 June 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[59] "Trudeau apologizes to Newfoundland residential school survivors left out of 2008 apology, compensation". thestar.com. 24 November 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[60] "Governor Newsom Issues Apology to Native Americans for State's Historical Wrongdoings, Establishes Truth and Healing Council". California Governor. 18 June 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2023.

[61] "Germany apologizes for colonial-era genocide in Namibia". Reuters. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[62] Corntassel, Jeff; Holder, Cindy (1 December 2008). "Who's Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru". Human Rights Review. 9 (4): 465–489. doi:10.1007/s12142-008-0065-3. S2CID 53969690.

[63] "Mexico marks end of last Indigenous revolt with apology". AP NEWS. 3 May 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

[64] "Dutch PM Mark Rutte apologises for country's role in the slave trade". euronews. 19 December 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[65] Sterling, Toby (1 July 2023). "King apologises for Netherlands' historic role in slavery". Reuters. Retrieved 3 July 2023.

[66] Cineas, Fabiola (17 January 2023). "New Zealand's Māori fought for reparations — and won". Vox. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[67] "Jan. 17, 1893 | Hawaiian Monarchy Overthrown by America-Backed Businessmen". The Learning Network. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2023. In 1993, Congress issued an apology to the people of Hawaii for the U.S. government's role in the overthrow and acknowledged that 'the native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty'.

[68] "A sorry saga: Obama signs Native American apology resolution; fails to draw attention to it | Indian Law Resource Center". indianlaw.org. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[69] Gover, Kevin (2000). "Remarks of Kevin Gover, Assistant Secretary Indian Affairs: Address to Tribal Leaders". Journal of American Indian Education. 39 (2): 4–6. JSTOR 24398427.

[70] Davidson, Helen (22 September 2014). "John Howard: there was no genocide against Indigenous Australians". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[71] Thompson, Janna (May 2009). "Apology, historical obligations and the ethics of memory". Memory Studies. 2 (2): 195–210. doi:10.1177/1750698008102052. S2CID 145294135.

[72] Yardley, Jim; Neuman, William (10 July 2015). "In Bolivia, Pope Francis Apologizes for Church's 'Grave Sins'". The New York Times.

[73] "Pope apologizes for 'catastrophic' school policy in Canada". AP NEWS. 25 July 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[74] "Pope Francis: It was a genocide against indigenous peoples – Vatican News". www.vaticannews.va. 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2023. It's true, I didn't use the word because it didn't come to my mind, but I described the genocide and asked for forgiveness, pardon for this activity that is genocidal. For example, I condemned this too: taking away children, changing culture, changing mentality, changing traditions, changing a race, let's put it that way, an entire culture. Yes, genocide is a technical word. I didn't use it because it didn't come to my mind, but I described it... It's true, yes, yes, it's genocide. You can all stay calm about this. You can report that I said that it was genocide.

[75] "Vatican rejects doctrine that fueled centuries of colonialism". AP NEWS. 30 March 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.

[76] "Bank of England says sorry for slave links as UK faces past". AP News. 19 June 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2023.

[77] Jolly, Jasper (18 June 2020). "Bank of England apologises for role of former directors in slave trade". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 July 2023.

[78] Sanders, Leanne (2 May 2022). "'I am ashamed, I am horrified': Archbishop of Canterbury expresses remorse over church's role residential schools". APTN News.

[79] Bush, Peter G. (2015). "The Canadian Churches' Apologies for Colonialism and Residential Schools, 1986–1998". Peace Research. 47 (1/2): 47–70. JSTOR 26382582.

[80] Handy, Gemma (24 April 2018). "Archaeologists say early Caribbeans were not 'savage cannibals', as colonists wrote". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2023.

[81] Whitehead, Neil L. (1984). "Carib cannibalism. The historical evidence". Journal de la société des américanistes. 70 (1): 69–87. doi:10.3406/jsa.1984.2239. JSTOR 24606255.

[82] Rebecca Earle, The Body of the Conquistador: Food, race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700. New York: Cambridge University Press 2012, pp. 123–124.

[83] Brantlinger, Patrick (2011). Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians (1 ed.). Cornell University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8014-5019-8. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt7zgmt. Dark Vanishings (2003) analyzed the pervasive discourse of blaming the victim that treated many indigenous populations as causing their own extinction. Savagery was supposedly a principal cause; besides warfare, savages practiced infanticide, widow strangling, and cannibalism, all held to be self-exterminating customs. It was frequently also asserted that many or perhaps all 'primitive races' were doomed by the forward march of 'the white man' and 'civilization'.

[84] Stannard, David E. (1993). American holocaust : the conquest of the New World. Internet Archive. New York : Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0. If the assertions of Ortiz and others regarding the habits of the Indians were fabrications, they were not fabrications without design. From the Spaniards' enumerations of what they claimed were the disgusting food customs of the Indians (including cannibalism, but also the consumption of insects and other items regarded as unfit for human diets) to the Indians' supposed nakedness and absence of agriculture, their sexual deviance and licentiousness, their brutish ignorance, their lack of advanced weaponry and iron, and their irremediable idolatry, the conquering Europeans were purposefully and systematically dehumanizing the people they were exterminating.

[85] Stannard, David E. (1993). American holocaust : the conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 63–67. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.

[86] Fernández-Santamaria, José A. (1975). "Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Nature of the American Indians". The Americas. 31 (4): 434–451. doi:10.2307/980012. JSTOR 980012. S2CID 147379509.

[87] "Chapter 5. Genocide in Tasmania?". Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (1 ed.). Berghahn Books. 2012. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-57181-411-1. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m. This is equally true of genocide-in two ways. For all individual German to kill a Jew or a Gypsy, just because of the race of the victim, is an act of genocide. But to accuse the machinery of State under which such killings took place as an act of policy requires proof that this is their aim. There is ample proof that this was the aim of the "Final Solution". Jews were to be killed because they were not human, just as the Tasmanian Aborigines were hunted to death for the same reason.

[88] Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (12 May 2016). "Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide | History News Network". historynewsnetwork.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.

[89] Treuer, David (13 May 2016). "Review: The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 May 2023.

[90] Tatz, Colin (2001). "Confronting Australian genocide". Aboriginal History. 25: 16–36. JSTOR 45135469. PMID 19514155. Denialism takes several forms. First, the denial of any past genocidal behavior, whether physical killing or child removal. Second, the somewhat bizarre counterview that whites have been the victims. Third, the hypothesis that concentration on unmitigated gloom, or on the black armband view of history, overwhelms the reality that there has been more good than bad in Australian race relations.

[Wolfe-91] Wolfe, Patrick (December 2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research. 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. S2CID 143873621.

[92] Moloney, Pat (2011). "Hobbes, Savagery, and International Anarchy". The American Political Science Review. 105 (1): 189–204. doi:10.1017/S0003055410000511. JSTOR 41480834. S2CID 144104936.

[93] Hitchcock, Robert (2014). "Indigenous Populations". In Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (eds.). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. pp. 4239–4246. ISBN 978-1-61069-364-6.

[94] Kuper, Leo (1991). "When Denial Becomes Routine". Social Education. 55 (2): 121–23. OCLC 425009321. ERIC EJ427728 ProQuest 210628314.

[95] Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (January 2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 145377834.

[96] Zinn, Howard (2005). A People's History of the United States. Internet Archive. HarperPerennial Modern Classics. ISBN 978-0-06-083865-2. From first grade to graduate school, I was given no inkling that the landing of Christopher Columbus in the New World initiated a genocide, in which the indigenous population of Hispaniola was annihilated. Or that this was just the first stage of what was presented as a benign expansion of the new nation (Louisiana "Purchase," Florida "Purchase," Mexican "Cession"), but which involved the violent expulsion of Indians, accompanied by unspeakable atrocities, from every square mile of the continent, until there was nothing to do with them but herd them into reservations. (Afterword)

[97] Barkan, Elazar (2003). "Chapter 6. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples". In Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (eds.). The specter of genocide : mass murder in historical perspective. Internet Archive. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp. 131, 138–139. ISBN 978-0-521-82063-9. The United States had its own long-standing boarding schools for Native American children with a similar extent of abuse. However, the term Education for Extinction is yet to capture public attention as a human rights issue. The American indigenous dilemma is far less central to U.S. mainstream politics than in any of the other ex-British colonies. The notion of genocide, while warranted as much or more than in those other countries, is still confined to radical writers. It is intriguing, indeed, that no mainstream American historians have written about the fate of the Native Americans as genocide. (p131) Thus, the European guilt was at least a collective myopia, a deep failure to acknowledge the equality of indigenous people and the vast number and varied array of atrocities and genocides inflicted upon them. More likely this has been a willful denial of responsibility and guilt, hiding behind the structural explanation of biological agents. It is time to reverse course and acknowledge the responsibility and extent of the destruction purposefully inflicted by colonialism, although not upon all indigenous peoples, and not in similar fashion. (p138-139)

[98] Jones, Adam (2008). Crimes Against Humanity : a Beginner's Guide. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 33. ISBN 9781851686018. Through a devastating combination of genocidal massacre, disease, malnutrition, and slave labor, perhaps ninety-five percent of the indigenous population of the Americas was wiped out following the arrival of Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Danish, Dutch, and Russian forces. In some places, such as Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), the obliteration of the native population – partly purposive, partly unexpected via infectious disease – was nearly total. The killing was rationalized by myths of civilizational superiority and the inevitability of indigenous peoples' disappearance. Sometimes the historical revisionism was so radical as to depict colonized territories as virgin lands, effectively free of indigenous populations at the time of Western 'discovery'.

[99] Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. HarperCollins. pp. 12, 16, 262. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0.

[100] Stannard, David E. (1992). "Genocide in the Americas". The Nation. 255 (12): 430–434.

[101] Hitchens, Christopher (19 October 1992). "Minority Report". The Nation. Vol. 255, no. 12.

[102] Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. To Hitchens, anyone who refused to join him in celebrating with "great vim and gusto" the annihilation of the native peoples of the Americas was (in his words) self-hating, ridiculous, ignorant, and sinister. People who regard critically the genocide that was carried out in America's past, Hitchens continued, are simply reactionary, since such grossly inhuman atrocities "happen to be the way history is made". And thus "to complain about them is as empty as complaint about climatic, geological or tectonic shift". Moreover, he added, such violence is worth glorifying since it more often than not has been for the long-term betterment of humankind, as in the United States today, where the extermination of the Native Americans has brought about "a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation".

[103] Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 298. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. These are, of course, precisely the same sort of retrospective justifications for genocide that would have been offered by the descendants of Nazi storm troopers and SS doctors had the Third Reich ultimately had its way: that is, however distasteful the means, the extermination of the Jews was thoroughly warranted given the beneficial ends that were accomplished. In this light it is worth considering again what the reaction would be in Europe and elsewhere if the equivalent of the actual views of Krauthammer and Schlesinger and Hitchens were expressed today by the respectable press in Germany—but with Jews, not Native Americans, as the people whose historical near-extermination was being celebrated. And there is no doubt whatsoever that if that were to happen, alarm bells announcing a frightening and unparalleled postwar resurgence of German neo-Nazism would, quite justifiably, be going off immediately throughout the world.

[104] Stannard, David (2009). Rosenbaum, Alan S; Charny, Israel W (eds.). Is the Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide. Abingdon, England: Routledge. pp. 330–331. doi:10.4324/9780429495137. ISBN 978-0-8133-3686-2. The willful maintenance of public ignorance regarding the genocidal and racist horrors against indigenous peoples that have been and are being perpetrated by many nations of the Western Hemisphere, including the United States—which contributes to the construction of a museum to commemorate genocide only if the killing occurred half a world away—is consciously aided and abetted and legitimized by the actions of the Jewish uniqueness advocates we have been discussing....and so all people of conscience must be on guard against Holocaust deniers who, in many cases, would like nothing better than to see mass violence against Jews start again. By that same token, however, as we consider the terrible history and the ongoing campaigns of genocide against the indigenous inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere...

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[189] Chomsky, Noam (1 September 2010). "Monthly Review | Genocide Denial with a Vengeance: Old and New Imperial Norms". Monthly Review. p. 16. Retrieved 30 March 2023. Settler colonialism, commonly the most vicious form of imperial conquest, provides striking illustrations. The English colonists in North America had no doubts about what they were doing. Revolutionary War hero General Henry Knox, the first Secretary of War in the newly liberated American colonies, described "the utter extirpation of all the Indians in most populous parts of the Union" by means "more destructive to the Indian natives than the conduct of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru", which would have been no small achievement. In his later years, President John Quincy Adams recognized the fate of "that hapless race of native Americans, which we are exterminating with such merciless and perfidious cruelty, [to be] among the heinous sins of this nation, for which I believe God will one day bring [it] to judgement".

[190] Chomsky, Noam; Barsamian, David (1992). Chronicles of dissent : interviews with David Barsamian. Internet Archive. Monroe, Me. : Common Courage Press ; Stirling, Scotland : AK Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-9628838-8-0. Take just north of the Rio Grande, where once there were maybe 10 or 12 million native Americans. By 1900 there were about 200,000. In the Andean region and Mexico there were very extensive Indian societies, and they're mostly gone. Many of them were just totally murdered or wiped out, others succumbed to European-brought diseases. This is massive genocide, long before the emergence of the twentieth century nation-state. It may be one of the most, if not the most extreme example from history, but far from the only one. These are facts that we don't recognize.

[191] Chomsky, Noam (3 November 2011). "Noam Chomsky: can revolutionary pacificism deliver peace?". The Conversation. Retrieved 26 October 2023. The calculation is off by tens of millions, and the "vastness" included advanced civilizations, facts well known to those who choose to know decades ago. No letters appeared reacting to this truly colossal case of genocide denial.

[192] Bailyn, Bernard (2012). "Introduction". The barbarous years : the peopling of British North America : the conflict of civilizations, 1600-1675. Internet Archive. New York : Alfred A. Knopf. pp. XV. ISBN 978-0-394-51570-0.

[193] Sale, Kirkpatrick (1990). The conquest of paradise : Christopher Columbus and the Columbian legacy. Internet Archive. New York : Knopf : Distributed by Random House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-394-57429-5. It is important to realize that there is not a single European nation which, when the opportunity came, did not engage in practices as vicious and cruel as those of Spain—and in the case of England, worse—with very much the same sort of demographic consequences. The Spanish, for all their faults, at least thought it right to convert, and in many cases to marry, the Indians, regarding them on a plane of humanity, capable of receiving Christian precepts and European civilization, above that generally accorded by other colonizers.

[194] Stannard, David E. (1994). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.

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[196] Levene, Mark (2005). Genocide in the age of the nation state, vol. 2: the rise of the west and the coming of genocide. New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 73, 84. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4. What, however, does make these Australian moments of genocide particularly noteworthy – if not in themselves that unusual – is not only the bizarre disjuncture between their regular reportage in the local and national press and official denial, or more accurately silence on the matter on the part of the authorities, but the peculiar lengths to which the latter were prepared to go to give the appearance that such 'extra-judicial' killings would not be tolerated and that the pacification of hostile tribes would rather – somehow – proceed by due legal process.

[197] Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8070-0041-0. Settler colonialism is inherently genocidal in terms of the genocide convention. In the case of the British North American colonies and the United States, not only extermination and removal were practiced but also the disappearing of the prior existence of Indigenous peoples, and this continues to be perpetuated in local histories.

[198] Howe, Stephen (2010). "Colonising and Exterminating? Memories of Imperial Violence in Britain and France". Histoire@Politique. 11 (2): 12. doi:10.3917/hp.011.0012. The crucial relevance of this to debates over colonial violence lies in the argument, made in recent years in many different contexts and with unprecedented force, that settler colonialism is inherently bound up with extreme, pervasive, structural and even genocidal violence....And quite simply, since Britain (and, before a United Kingdom or a compound British identity were formed, England) founded more and more successful, 'explosive' settler colonies than anyone else, so probably more alleged or potential cases of pre-twentieth century genocide occurred in the British world than anywhere outside it...For British North America and for Australasia, however, the case for numerous genocidal episodes –by even restricted definitions, since large-scale deliberate killing was repeatedly involved– seems to me very strong.

[199] Totten, Samuel; Hitchcock, Robert K. (2011). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-4455-0. ...It was only in the latter part of the twentieth century that the genocide of Indigenous peoples started to become a significant issue for human rights activists, non-governmental organizations, international development and finance institutions, such as the United Nations and the World Bank, and indigenous and other community-based organizations... pp2. "Invisible" and "silent" genocide is just as much genocide as those cases that claim the attention of the mass media and outrage the masses across the globe (if, in fact, that actually happens) Part and parcel of being human rights or genocide scholars involves, or so it seems to us. being activists who seek, along with indigenous peoples around the world, to promote human rights and social justice for all. pp13.

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[214] Stanton, Gregory (2020). "10 Stages of Genocide". Genocide Watch. Retrieved 31 March 2023. The best response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts. There the evidence can be heard, and the perpetrators punished.... When possible, local proceedings should provide forums for hearings of the evidence against perpetrators who were not the main leaders and planners of a genocide, with opportunities for restitution and reconciliation. The Rwandan gaçaça trials are one example. Justice should be accompanied by education in schools and the media about the facts of a genocide, the suffering it caused its victims, the motivations of its perpetrators, and the need for restoration of the rights of its victims.

[215] Sisson, Jonathan (2010). "A conceptual framework for dealing with the past" (PDF). Politorbis. 50 (3): 11–15.