Djedkare Isesi

Djedkare is well attested in sources contemporaneous with his reign.[note 2] The tombs of many of his courtiers and family members have been discovered in Giza,[note 3] Saqqara and Abusir.[25] They give insights into the administrative reforms that Djedkare conducted during his reign and, in a few cases, even record letters that the king sent to his officials.[26][27] These letters, inscribed on the walls of tombs, typically present royal praises for the tomb owner.[28]

Another important source of information about Egypt during the reign of Djedkare is the Abusir papyri. These are administrative documents, covering a period of 24 years[29] during Djedkare's reign; they were discovered in the mortuary temples of pharaohs Neferirkare Kakai, Neferefre and queen Khentkaus II.[30] In addition to these texts, the earliest letters on papyrus preserved to the present day also date to Djedkare's reign, dealing with administrative or private matters.[29]

Djedkare is attested in four ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the New Kingdom.[31] The earliest of these is the Karnak king list, dating to the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), where Djedkare is mentioned on the fifth entry. Djedkare's prenomen occupies the 32nd entry of the Abydos King List, which was written during the reign of Seti I (1290–1279 BC). Djedkare is also present on the Saqqara Tablet (31st entry)[14] where he is listed under the name "Maatkare", probably because of a scribal error.[32] Djedkare's prenomen is given as "Djed" on the Turin canon (third column, 24th row),[31] probably because of a lacuna affecting the original document from which the canon was copied during the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).[32] The Turin canon credits Djedkare with 28 years of reign.[2][32][33]

In addition to these sources, Djedkare is mentioned on the Prisse Papyrus dating to the 12th Dynasty (c. 1990–1800 BC).[34] The papyrus records The Maxims of Ptahhotep and gives Djedkare's nomen "Isesi" to name the pharaoh whom the purported authors of the maxims, vizier Ptahhotep, served.[35] Djedkare was also probably mentioned in the Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) by the Egyptian priest Manetho. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius. Africanus relates that a pharaoh Tancheres (Ancient Greek Τανχέρης) reigned for 44 years as the eighth and penultimate king of the Fifth Dynasty.[36] Given its position within the dynasty, Tancheres is believed to be his Hellenized name.[31]

Isesi-ankh as depicted on his false door stela[37]

Djedkare's parentage is unknown; in particular his relation with his predecessors Menkauhor Kaiu and Nyuserre Ini cannot be ascertained.[38] Djedkare is generally thought to have been the son of Menkauhor Kaiu, but the two might instead have been brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini.[39] Another hypothesis suggests that Djedkare and Menkauhor could have been cousins,[39] being sons of Nyuserre and Neferefre respectively.[40] The identity of Djedkare's mother is similarly unknown.[38]

The name of Djedkare's principal wife was Setibhor. This important queen consort whose name was lost but found in 2019 was the owner of a large pyramid complex located to the northeast of Djedkare's pyramid in Saqqara.[41] This could indicate that she was the mother of Djedkare's successor, Unas,[2] or that Djedkare owed the throne to her.[42][43] The very high status of this queen is suggested by some features of her funerary complex that are otherwise reserved to kings:[44] her pyramid has its own satellite pyramid, has a causeway leading from a valley temple up to a mortuary temple devoted to the cult of the queen and had an entrance hall pr-wrw, an open courtyard and a square antechamber.[43][45] Furthermore, some reliefs showing the queen had been reworked with royal insignia and vultures added above her head.[46] Since the construction of the queen's pyramid was apparently undertaken after the planning of Djedkare's pyramid and her relief had been reworked, the Egyptologist Klaus Baer suggests that this queen may have ruled after the death of Djedkare, playing an important role in his succession. This is rejected by other Egyptologists, such as Michel Baud, owing to the lack of evidence for a regency or interregnum between Djedkare and Unas.[47]

The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that this pyramid was initially intended for queen Meresankh IV, whom he and Verner see as a wife of Djedkare. Seipel contends that Meresankh was finally buried in a smaller mastaba in Saqqara North after she fell into disgrace.[48] Alternatively, Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have proposed that she was a wife of the preceding king, Menkauhor Kaiu.[49]

Wooden statues of Kekheretnebti and in the background, of Neserkauhor, now in the Náprstek Museum

Only one son of Djedkare has been identified for certain, Neserkauhor,[50] who bore the title of "eldest beloved king's son of his body".[note 4][51][52] Neserkauhor also bore the title of Iry-pat, showing that he was an important member of the royal court, as well as a priestly title "Greatest of the Five in the temple of Thoth", suggesting that he may have been a vizier[51] or had similar occupations.[52]

As well as Neserkauhor, there is indirect evidence that princes Raemka[note 5] and Kaemtjenent[note 6][56] are sons of Djedkare[57][58][59] based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara. For example, the tomb of Kaemtjenent mentions vizier Rashepses, who served during the reign of Djedkare.[60][61] Raemka also bore the title of "king's son of his body",[53] almost exclusively reserved to true princes of royal blood.[note 7] The locations of Raemka's and Kaemtjenent's tombs have led some Egyptologists to believe that both princes are sons[58] of queen Meresankh IV buried nearby, who would thus be one of Djedkare's wives. These conclusions are debated, in particular in the case of Kaemtjenent, whose title of "king's son" may have been purely honorific.[62]

A high official named Isesi-ankh could have been yet another son of Djedkare, as suggested by his name meaning "Isesi lives".[49] Yet, similarities in the titles and locations of the tombs[note 8] of Isesi-ankh and Kaemtjenent have led Egyptologists to propose that they could instead be brothers and sons of Meresankh IV,[64] or that the former is a son of the latter.[65] Even though Isesi-ankh bore the title of "king's son", the Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz argue that this filiation was fictitious, being only an honorary title.[66][67]

Finally, the successor of Djedkare, Unas, is thought to have been his son[2] in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question.[68] The main argument in favor of this filiation is that the succession from Djedkare to Unas seems to have been smooth,[69] as suggested indirectly, for example, by the Abusir papyri.[70] Indirect evidence also comes from the reliefs of Unas' causeway, which show many officials bearing names incorporating "Isesi", suggesting at the very least that Unas did not perceive Djedkare as an antagonist.[71][72][73]

Several daughters of Djedkare have been identified by the title of "king's daughter of his body" and the general date of their tomb. These include Kekheretnebti,[note 9][49] whose filiation is clearly indicated by her other title of "Beloved of Isesi",[74] Meret-Isesi,[note 10][49] Hedjetnebu,[note 11][75][49] and Nebtyemneferes.[note 12][49] Less certain is the filiation of Kentkhaus, wife of vizier Senedjemib Mehi, who bore the title of "king's daughter of his body".[76][77] It is debated whether this title indicates a true filiation or if it is only honorary.[77][78]

Two statues of Ptahhotep, a vizier during Djedkare's reign[106]

During his reign Djedkare effected significant reforms of the state administration and priesthood, in particular that pertaining to the funerary cults[107] in the necropolis of Abusir.[note 18][108] These evolutions are witnessed by changes in priestly titles and more broadly, in the system of ranking titles of high officials, which was modified for the first time in its existence.[94] For example, the priesthood of the royal pyramids was reorganized,[1] with Djedkare possibly changing the titles and functions of the priests from "priest of king" to "priest of the pyramid",[109] although this change may have happened earlier, under Nyuserre Ini.[110] Princes of royal blood could once more hold administrative titles,[note 19] a prerogative they had lost during the early Fifth Dynasty.[94] At the same time, viziers could now hold the prestigious titles of Iry-pat[93] and Haty-a[111] and, as "overseer of the royal scribes", became the head of the scribal administration.[112] At least one vizier, Seshemnefer III, even bore the title of "king's son of his body", one of the most distinguished titles at the time and normally reserved to princes of royal blood. Yet neither Seshemnefer III's father nor his mother seems to have belonged to the royal family.[113] For the period spanning the reign of Djedkare until that of Teti, viziers were furthermore responsible for the weaponry of the state, both for military and other purposes.[113] Following the reforms undertaken by Djedkare, three viziers would be in office at the same time:[114] two in the Memphite region and a Southern one, the "governor of Upper Egypt",[94] with a seat at Abydos.[1][2] In total six viziers were appointed during Djedkare's reign.[note 20][106]

Lower ranking officials lost power during the late Fifth Dynasty and were frequently limited to holding only one high title,[114] a departure from the preceding period.[94] Such functions as "overseer of the granary" and "overseer of the treasury" disappear from the record some time between Djedkare's reign and that of Teti,[94] while men of lower status became head of the legal administration.[112] Consequently, the viziers concentrated more power than before while lower echelons of the state administration were reduced.[112] At the same time, the size of the provincial administration was increased, and it also became more autonomous from the central government.[2] In particular, the nomarchs were responsible in their provinces for performing works hitherto conducted by Memphite officials.[112]

The main building activity undertaken during the reign of Djedkare was the construction of his pyramid complex in Saqqara. Djedkare also either completed or undertook restoration works in the funerary complex of Nyuserre Ini in Abusir, as indicated by a now damaged inscription,[115] which must have detailed Djedkare's activities on the site.[note 21][116] Further building works took place in Abusir during the second half of Djedkare's reign following the curious[117] decision by members of the royal family to be buried there rather than next to Djedkare's pyramid in Saqqara. A group of mastabas was thus constructed for princess Kekheretnebti and her daughter Tisethor, princess Hedjetnebu, the courtiers Mernefu and Idu, who was buried with his wife Khenit, and prince Neserkauhor.[103][117]

Djedkare also undertook building activities in relation with his "sed" festival as indicated by a decree that he sent to his vizier Senedjemib Inti on the year of the 16th cattle count,[118] praising him for his work.[119] The decree mentions the construction of a broad rectangular court[120] or artificial lake[121][122] for the jubilee of the king, some 1000 cubits long and 400 cubits wide,[119] amounting to c. 525 m × 231 m (1,722 ft × 758 ft).[123][124] The court was located within the precincts of a palace built for the ceremonies of the "sed" festival, which was probably located in the vicinity of his pyramid.[note 22][124] Another decree addressed to Senedjemib Inti and later inscribed on the walls of his mastaba records the decoration of a chapel of Hathor in the palace of the king. This chapel was most likely built during his reign.[129]

Djedkare may have left some of his monuments unfinished at his death, as suggested by several relief-bearing blocks inscribed with his name and which were found reused in the pyramid of king Unas. Their original setting remains unknown.[130] A reused granite block with the king's name was also found at the pyramid of Amenemhat I at Lisht.[131]

Three or four[note 23] rock inscriptions dating to Djedkare's reign have been found in the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai, where mines of copper and semi-precious stones were exploited throughout the Old Kingdom, from the Fourth until the Sixth Dynasty.[134] These inscriptions record three expeditions sent to look for turquoise: the earliest one, dated to the third[135] or fourth[136] cattle count–possibly corresponding to the sixth or eighth year of Dejdkare's reign–explicitly recalls the arrival of the mining party to the "hills of the turquoise"[note 24] after being given "divine authority for the finding of semi-precious stones in the writing of the god himself, [as was enacted] in the broad court of the temple Nekhenre".[135][136] This sentence could indicate the earliest known record of an oracular divination undertaken in order to ensure the success of the expedition prior to its departure, Nekhenre being the sun temple of Userkaf.[136] Another inscription dating to the year of the ninth cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 18th year on the throne – shows the king "subduing all foreign lands. Smiting the chief of the foreign land".[135][136] The expedition that left this inscription comprised over 1400 men and administration officials.[138][139] Some Egyptologists have proposed that these men were also sent to mine copper.[140][141]

These expeditions departed Egypt from the port of Ain Sukhna, on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, as revealed by papyri and seals bearing Djedkare's name found on the site.[142][143] The port comprised large galleries carved into the sandstone serving as living quarters and storage places.[143] The wall of one such gallery was inscribed with a text mentioning yet another expedition to the hills of turquoise in the year of the seventh cattle count–possibly Djedkare's 14th year on the throne.[137][144] In early 2018, more than 220 clay seals bearing the serekh of Djedkare were uncovered in Tell Edfu in the south of Upper Egypt. These seals have been found in close association with copper ore, Nubian pottery, the remains of two large buildings and a settlement. Edfu, called Behdet by the ancient Egyptians, was likely the place of departure for the mining expeditions sent to the Eastern desert and the Red Sea during Djedkare's reign. These expeditions were undertaken by a special group of prospectors, called the sementiu, who were under the orders of an administration official sent by the king from Memphis to Edfu.[145]

Gold cylinder seal bearing the names of Djedkare and Menkauhor Kaiu, purportedly from Anatolia[146]

South of Egypt, Djedkare dispatched at least one expedition to the diorite quarries located 65 km (40 mi) north-west of Abu Simbel.[note 25][148] Djedkare was not the first king to do so, as these quarries were already exploited during the Fourth Dynasty and continued to be so during the Sixth Dynasty and later, in the Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055 BC – c. 1650 BC).[147]

Djedkare probably also exploited gold mines in the Eastern Desert and in Nubia: indeed, the earliest mention of the "land of gold" – an Ancient Egyptian term for Nubia[note 26] – is found in an inscription from the mortuary temple of Djedkare.[150]

Egypt entertained continuing trade relations with the Levant during Djedkare's reign, possibly as far north as Anatolia. A gold cylinder seal bearing the serekh of Djedkare together with the cartouche of Menkauhor Kaiu is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.[note 27][146] The seal, whose gold may originate from the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia,[151] could attest to wide-ranging trade-contacts during the later Fifth Dynasty,[2][152] but its provenance remains unverifiable.[note 28][155]

Trade contacts with Byblos, on the coast of modern-day Lebanon, are suggested by a fragmentary stone vessel unearthed in the city and bearing the inscription "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Djedkare [living] forever".[156][157] A biographical inscription discovered in the tomb of Iny, a Sixth Dynasty official, provides further evidence for an Egyptian expedition to Byblos during Djedkare's reign.[158] Iny's inscription relates his travels to procure lapis lazuli and lead or tin[159] for pharaoh Merenre, but starts by recounting what must have been similar events taking place under Djedkare.[160]

To the south of Egypt, Djedkare also sent an expedition to the fabled Land of Punt[148] to procure the myrrh used as incense in the Egyptian temples.[161] The expedition to Punt is referred to in the letter from Pepi II Neferkare to Harkuf some 100 years later. Harkuf had reported that he would bring back a "dwarf of the god's dancers from the land of the horizon dwellers". Pepi mentions that the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum had returned from Punt with a dwarf during the reign of Djedkare and had been richly rewarded. The decree mentions that "My Majesty will do for you something greater than what was done for the god's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum in the reign of Isesi, reflecting my majesty's yearning to see this dwarf".[162]

Relief from the tomb of Inti showing a scene of battle or siege[163]

Djedkare's expedition to Punt is also mentioned in a contemporaneous graffito found in Tumas, a locality of Lower Nubia some 150 km (93 mi) south of Aswan,[31] where Isesi's cartouche was discovered.[164]

Not all relations between Egypt and its neighbors were peaceful during Djedkare's reign. In particular, one of the earliest known depictions of a battle or a city being besieged[165] is found in the tomb of Inti, an official from the 21st nome of Upper Egypt, who lived during the late Fifth Dynasty.[158][165] The scene shows Egyptian soldiers scaling the walls of a Near Eastern fortress on ladders.[31][166] More generally, ancient Egyptians seem to have regularly organised punitive raids in Canaan during the later Old Kingdom period but did not attempt to establish a permanent dominion there.[167]

The large mastaba of Senedjemib Inti, vizier under Djedkare

For Nigel Strudwick, the reforms of Djedkare were undertaken as a reaction to the rapid growth of the central administration in the first part of the Fifth Dynasty[112] which, Baer adds, had amassed too much political or economic power[174] in the eyes of the king.[175] Joyce Tyldesley sees the reign of Djedkare as the very beginning of a decline in the importance of the king, in conjunction with the gradual rise of the power wielded by the high and provincial administration.[176] Concurrent with this trend is a process of decentralization, with local loyalties slowly superseding allegiance to the central state.[176] Since offices and the vizierate in particular could be inherited,[2] the reforms of Djedkare created a "virtual feudal system" as Nicolas Grimal writes,[148][177] with much power in the hands of a few puissant officials. This is best witnessed by the large, magnificent mastaba tombs that Djedkare's viziers built.[148] In this context, Djedkare's reforms of the ranking system might have been an attempt at maintaining a sprawling administration under control,[114] yet ultimately failed. For some Egyptologists, such as Naguib Kanawati, this failure contributed in no small part to the fall of the Old Kingdom,[178] but others, including Strudwick, believe the reasons of the collapse must be sought elsewhere as the power of an administration official never approached that of the king.[174]

The reforms of Djedkare played an important role in flourishing of the arts during the later Old Kingdom, as artisans and craftsmen could now find many wealthy patrons beyond the king. This created a surge in the number of commissions leading to a general improvement of the artistic works. This also provided the artisans with a new wealth, which they used to build their own large funerary complexes.[2]

Personified agricultural estate of Djedkare called "Ra desires that Isesi lives"[179]

Djedkare was the object of a funerary cult established at his death and which lasted until the end of the Old Kingdom nearly 200 years later. Provisions for this cult were produced in several agricultural estates set up during Djedkare's reign. The names of some of these estates have been found inscribed on the walls of the tombs of his courtiers: "Ra desires that Isesi lives",[note 30] "Heqa desires that Izezi live",[note 31] "Perfect of emulation is Isesi",[note 32] "The mnza-vessel of Djedkare",[note 33] "Perfect of favors is Isesi",[note 34] "Seshat makes Isesi live",[note 35] "The Ka of Isesi is foremost",[note 36] "Dominion belongs to Izezi", [note 37] "Work of the command of Izezi",[note 38] "Bastet wishes that Izezi lives",[note 39] "Horus perpetuates Izezi",[note 40] "The offerings of Izezi",[note 41] and "Izezi is one who loves life".[note 42]

Djedkare seems to have been held in high esteem during the Sixth Dynasty. For example, Merenre Nemtyemsaf I chose to place his pyramid complex close to that of Djedkare.[184] In addition, the South Saqqara Stone, a royal annal dating to the reign of Merenre or of his successor Pepi II,[185] records rich offerings being made to Djedkare on behalf of the king.[note 43][186][187] An estimated 92%[188] of the text inscribed on the stone was lost when it was roughly polished to be reused as a sarcophagus lid, possibly in the late First Intermediate (c. 2160–2055 BC) to early Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055–1650 BC).[189]

More generally, an historical or literary tradition concerning events in the time of Djedkare seems to have flourished toward the end of Old Kingdom as can be inferred from the tombs of Harkuf and Iny.[190] These two officials were in charge of expeditions to foreign lands–Punt and Byblos– under Merenre I and Pepi II and both relate similar expeditions that took place during the time of Djedkare.[190]

The funerary cult of Djedkare enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1077 BC). For the early part of this period, this is best attested by the Karnak king list, a list of kings commissioned by pharaoh Thutmose III. The list was not meant to be exhaustive, rather it gave the names of Thutmose's forefathers whom he wanted to honor by dedicating offerings.[191]

For the later New Kingdom, a relief from the Saqqara tomb of the priest Mehu, dating to the 19th or 20th Dynasty shows three gods faced by several deceased pharaohs. These are Djoser and Sekhemket, of the Third Dynasty and Userkaf, founder of the Fifth Dynasty. He is followed by a fourth king whose name is damaged but which is often read "Djedkare" or, much less likely, "Shepseskare". The relief is an expression of personal piety on Mehu's behalf, who prayed to the ancient kings for them to recommend him to the gods.[192]