Effects of pornography on young people

The Effects of pornography on young people refers to the impact of pornography on adolescents. It wasn't until 1973,[1] particularly with the advent of internet accessibility,[2] that the consumption of pornography by adolescents became a subject of rigorous scientific inquiry. But the precise classification of pornography remains a subject of ongoing debate. For teenagers, pornography has become an integral facet of their lives, with its perceived utility amplified by insufficient sexual education that fails to meet the developmental needs. Adolescents often lack avenues for open discussions about their experiences with pornography, as its consumption is not viewed as normative by adults.[3] They turn to pornography for learning, arousal, mating motivations, coping mechanisms, alleviating boredom, entertainment, and to explore their sexual and gender identities. However, they may also encounter content that disturbs them. Without adequate support, they learn to navigate disconcerting material, developing the skills to seek out content that affirms their sexuality while avoiding that which causes discomfort.[3] The use of pornography by adolescents is associated with certain sexual attitudes and behaviors, but causal relationships remain unclear. It is imperative to recognize that adolescents are not passive "fools" or "victims." The typical adolescent consumer of pornography is typically male, in advanced stages of puberty, sensation-seeking, and often grapples with weak or disrupted family relationships.

When adolescents view pornography, it may be intentional through, for example, independent searching, or unintentional, such as through advertising on the Internet or spam emails.
This page is about how pornography and other forms of explicit sexual content affect young people. For other related articles, see Effects of pornography

Demography

When adolescents view pornography, it may be intentional through, for example, independent searching, or unintentional, such as through advertising on the Internet or spam emails.[2] The incidence of use ranges from 7% to 98%, depending on the study and the group studied.[2] Methodological differences, technological changes, and cultural context have been cited as reasons for this difference.[2] Male adolescents with autism viewed pornography less often than neurotypical adolescents (ASD 41% vs. neurotypical 76%) and/or masturbated less regularly with pornography (ASD 39% vs. neurotypical 76%). In contrast, no difference was found among female adolescents.[4] Age of first use ranges from 6 to 19 years for heterosexual adolescents, with an average age of 11 years for boys and 12 years for girls.[5] First use of pornography ranges from 6 to 17 years for LGBTQ adolescents.[5] The frequency of use among LGBTQ youth in the literature is often contradictory, with some studies reporting higher frequency than heterosexual youth and others not.[5] Boys are more likely to use pornography out of curiosity and for sexual arousal and entertainment compared to girls. Boys are also more likely to use pornography for what may be called "social intercourse," i.e., viewing pornography with other boys. While boys are generally critical of pornography, girls are more repulsed by pornography: They often find it silly, disgusting, and tend to have a negative attitude toward it.[2] How many adolescents come into contact with violence in pornography is unclear; in one survey, about three percent of adolescents have consumed pornography with violence.[2] In another survey, this figure was 29% for boys and 16% for girls.[6] In the U.S., the most common forms of pornography among urban, low-income, black, and Hispanic youth were depictions of heterosexual sex, and in rarer cases, more extreme forms of pornography, such as humiliation, bestiality, bondage, and bukkake.[2]

An Umbrella Review stated on this aspect of the types of pornography teens use: "More research is needed on the types of pornography teens use, rather than relying on speculation and opinion. It should be assumed that adolescents are not passive "fools" or "victims" but are critical of social norms (such as the social expectation to disapprove of pornography) and depictions in pornography that are misogynistic, racist, homophobic, transphobic, or violent, non-consensual, lack love or intimacy, follow beauty ideals, show little neglected groups, and show superficial depictions that only refer to sexual acts and genitals."[7][3] Many young people held the view that pornography was made only for men and prioritized the sexual pleasure of cisgender heterosexual men. Pornography, they argued, positions women to satisfy the sexual needs of men and that it fetishizes lesbians, transgender people, and non-binary people for viewing by heterosexual men. According to them, it perpetuates male dominance and the oppression of women.[3] Some women felt that performers were forced to perform certain acts. Other youth tended to overestimate their own ability to critically evaluate pornography and to ignore ethical concerns about the pornography industry. Men were less critical of pornography than women, and hesitant to talk about how the effects of pornography differ by gender.[3] The definitions of pornography in pornography research are unclear, some studies use terms like X-rated or erotica used or no definition is made.[7]

Predictors

Predictors (predictive characteristics) are characteristics that predict increased use of pornography. Here, only intentional use of pornography is considered. Predictive characteristics change when access to pornography changes (e.g., through restricted access) or when the cultural context changes (e.g., where use is or is not socially normal).[2]

Demographic factors

Male adolescents use pornography more frequently than female adolescents. These gender differences in the use of pornography are less pronounced in more liberal countries than in less liberal countries. No differences were found in the use of Internet pornography with themes of affection, dominance, or violence. Bisexual or homosexual male adolescents are more likely to use Internet pornography than heterosexual male adolescents.[2] LGBTQ adolescents may use pornography more frequently and intensively;[5] in general, inadequate or inappropriate sexual education and lack of sexual information about the mechanics of intercourse or genitalia have been associated with increased use of pornography.[2] This is more true for LGBTQ youth, whose sexual activities are rarely included in sex education programs.[8] When it comes to the influence of use on academic performance, results are mixed, with some studies finding an association and others finding no association.[2]

Personality factors

Sensation-seeking adolescents use pornography more frequently than their peers.[2] However, there is no influence of sensation-seeking on the choice of Internet pornography themes (i.e., affection, dominance, violence).[2] Narcissistic traits and coping predicted greater use of pornography.[9] Similarly, adolescents with lower self-control consumed more Internet pornography. For self-esteem, results were mixed. Lower perceived autonomy was associated with more frequent pornography use, as was greater self-efficacy. Adolescents with a hyperfeminine or hypermasculine gender orientation were more likely to come into contact with violent depictions in Internet pornography than adolescents without such a hypergender orientation.[2] Use of Internet pornography predicted permissive attitudes toward pornography use, whereas permissive attitudes did not.[2] Not only did this use predict stronger stereotype beliefs over time, stereotype beliefs predicted more frequent use of Internet pornography over time. This association was significantly stronger among male adolescents than female adolescents and was mediated by a preference for pornography.[2] Pornography use predicted greater sexual engagement, greater sexual insecurity, and greater sexual dissatisfaction, but neither sexual engagement, sexual insecurity, nor sexual dissatisfaction consistently predicted Internet pornography use.[2]

Youth who break rules or who use psychotropic substances are more likely to use pornography.[2] Pornography use is most characteristic of a group of youth referred to as "minor offenders." For religious youth and those who attend religious schools, the results are contradictory. Some studies showed that pornography use is lower among religious youth. This is associated with religiosity being associated with higher self-control, more negative attitudes toward pornography, and feeling that viewing pornography violates social expectations and norms. Lower use was not observed in other studies. Whether adolescents were in school and living with both parents was unrelated to pornography use. Negative attitudes toward school and toward friends who engage in deviant activities have been associated with greater use of Internet pornography.[2]

Adolescents with a greater sexual interest, as well as those who also used sexual content in other media, are also more likely to be exposed to Internet pornography. Use of Internet pornography is higher among adolescents with better digital skills, while pornography use is not related to adolescents' computer skills. Internet pornography use appears to be lower when filtering software is installed. Adolescents who used Internet pornography more frequently also used the Internet more frequently in general and for a variety of activities, including file sharing, sex education, talking to strangers, playing Internet games, and buying merchandise.[2]

Developmental factors

Some studies showed that pornography use increases with age, while others found no such increase.[2] Younger adolescents seem to respond more strongly to Internet pornography with the theme of affection, while older adolescents respond more strongly to pornography with the theme of dominance. More frequent use of Internet pornography occurs in both boys and girls with advanced puberty. Greater sexual experience was associated with more frequent use of Internet pornography, and in another study, less frequent use of Internet pornography among girls. Competencies such as the ability to solve problems, set goals, make effective behavioral decisions, and act accordingly were associated with more frequent pornography use. In contrast, positive youth development traits (e.g., social competence, self-efficacy, and moral competence) were associated with less frequent pornography use, both on the Internet and in less traditional media.[2]

Social factors

Lower family commitment, poor family functioning in general, and especially lower family reciprocity were associated with greater pornography use. The same was true for poor emotional attachment to the caregiver (for Internet pornography) and for caregivers using disciplinary coercion (for traditional pornography). In addition, family conflict and poor family communication were related to higher Internet and traditional pornography use mediated by less positive youth development. Weaker prosocial attitudes were also related to more frequent pornography use. Restrictive parental monitoring with blocking software installed was associated with less pornography use on the Internet. When young people want to access preferred pornography, they also manage to get past payment barriers, identity verification, and website blocking by parents and schools. These barriers were not perceived as deterrents by young people and could be easily overcome if desired.[3] In contrast, parental control and talking to children about Internet pornography is not related to Internet pornography use.[2]

More frequent use of online pornography occurs when the majority of the youth's friends were younger, when the youth used the Internet at their friends' homes, when they communicated more frequently with their friends about pornography (males only), and when peers perceived them to use pornography (females only). Use on mobile devices occurs clustered among people who are more popular with same- or opposite-sex peers or among people who have a desire for popularity or experience peer pressure. Peer attachment is unrelated to adolescent use of Internet pornography. In terms of victimization, adolescents are more likely to use Internet pornography if they have been harassed online and victimized in their offline lives.[2]

Overall, adolescents who use pornography the most are male, sensation-seeking adolescents at an advanced stage of puberty, with weak or dysfunctional family relationships.[2]

Motivations

Adolescents turn to internet pornography for various reasons, including:[9][10][5]

  • Curiosity and seeking information about Sex and sexual organs, sex positions/-roles, bodies and behaviors how to behave, and how to masturbate and ejaculate.[8] Pornography serves as a way to learn without the risks associated with actual sexual activity. Initially driven by curiosity about sex and pornography, adolescents later use pornography to understand sexual roles and expectations. It also provides a platform to study different sexual mechanisms and techniques of certain and new sexual acts.[3] However, this is less of a reason to consume pornography, especially for frequent users. The usefullness of new information can predict how engaged individuals are with it. While seeking information ranks lower in frequency compared to arousal and pleasure,[9] it remains more prevalent among males,[3] but it’s still unclear which exact subgroups of youth use pornography to learn about sex and sexuality.[2] Adolescents feel that traditional sex education falls short in addressing their questions, making pornography a valuable source of information, because sex education was limited, focusing only on STDs, pregnancy risk, and heterosexual sex, or got skipped. For adolescents, pornography has increased value because it provided information that was not present in sex education.[3] Adolescents saw pornography as an unavoidable or necessary source of information. Suggestions about sex ed, include expanding sexual education to critically evaluate pornography, discuss consent, reducing the shame associated with viewing pornography, relationship management, and negotiation skills, and to learn how to satisfy yourself and your partner. This should also address body image, sexual expectations, and prioritize physical and mental well-being, in terms of pleasure and sexual functioning. Adolescents emphasize the need for open and factual discussions about sex, both with adults and to stimulate discussions in small groups of trusted peers.[3]
  • Arousal and Amplification, is a significant driving force behind pornography use, is its reinforcement of masturbation and the fulfillment of sexual desires.[9] Adolecent sometimes used it as a substitute for intimacy after a breakup or when a partner is unavailable.[3]
  • Intimacy and Mate-seeking Motives, some individuals, particularly women, use pornography with the intention of enhancing intimacy or relationships. In heterosexual relationships, some partners use internet pornography to satisfy their significant others or to improve sexual intimacy. While less than 20% of men reported using pornography with a partner, about 90% used it alone. However, shared consumption is not the primary motivation. There is a growing trend among young adults to incorporate pornography into their relationships, indicating a shift in consumption motivations.[9] Nevertheless, not everyone sees shared consumption as normal. Some young women view it as a potential threat to the relationship and may not be comfortable integrating pornography into their partnerships, especially if pressured, to use pornogarphy. Shared consumption still tends to adhere to traditional gender roles, with young men more inclined towards it and young women focusing on factors like context, privacy and regulation. For some women, consuming pornography is only acceptable within a relationship, which can indirectly pressure their consumption habits to deal with pornography outside of socially accepted contexts to protect their privacy and reduce stigma.[3]
  • Coping Mechanism: Apart from sexual arousal, a significant reason for using pornography is to cope with and alleviate negative emotions. Mood regulation and stress relief are motivations for consuming pornography, helping manage psychological distress, loneliness, and discomfort. This suggests a potential causal relationship between lower mood states and the utilization of pornography as a coping strategy.[9]
  • Boredom and Entertainment: Boredom is a common trigger for engaging with pornography, as individuals often seek stimulating activities to alleviate this state.[9] Seeking entertainment, is another motivation. Watching pornography with peers allows young individuals to gauge others reactions, helping establish social norms around its consumption, as well as determine specific behaviors, experiences, or bodies seen in pornography. In some cases, family members like fathers or cousins served as initial sources of exposure to pornography, driven by a desire to promote heterosexual behaviors and discourage same-sex activities.[3]
  • Sexual and Gender Identity:[5][8] LGBTQ youth often use pornography to explore and affirm their sexual or gender identities, gravitating towards content that resonates with them. It serves as a crucial tool for validating their sexual orientation, especially for those who feel marginalized in mainstream narratives.[3] Pornography also acts as a means to gauge their readiness to engage in LGBTQ activities. Initially, they found and used internet pornography as their primary source of information about LGBTQ activities, considering pornography as a kind of "guide" for sexual experiences. Pornography was the only source on LGBTQ sexual activity. If these videos include educational content (e.g., contraception during sexual activity, sexual consent, mutual sexual pleasure), could it be particularly valuable. However, they express a willingness to seek out other sources if such information becomes more readily available online or is covered more extensively in schools or by parents. As LGBTQ youth become more informed about LGBTQ activities, their use of pornography aligns more with their peers.[5][8] They also view pornography as a "safe space" for sexual exploration and expression, providing a sense of validation for sexual identities and feelings that may face stigma in mainstream culture especially those of young women and young people with LGBTQ+ identities.[3]

Effects of pornography

Surveys are the main method for studying the effects of pornography on adolescents due to legal and/or ethical constraints preventing experimental research.[2] In these surveys, young individuals openly discuss their pornography use, for one study author, this indicated a "shift in the position (of pornography) as perverse, deviant, or shameful."[3] The research is based on establishing correlations, which allows for making assumptions about causality but doesn't conclusively prove it (a correlation does not imply causality). This means that it is not possible to draw conclusions about whether the contexts are a consequence or a cause of viewing pornography.[7] It's could for example be, that consuming pornography causes certain beliefs or if it's the other way around, or if multiple factors contribute to a particular belief. There's also the possibility that the observed correlation is coincidental.[7]

Most studies come from affluent countries like the Netherlands and Sweden, making it challenging to generalize the findings to more sexually conservative nations.[2] Research on pornography often concentrates on potential negative effects, largely neglecting positive ones,[7] this can be justified by theoretical considerations and by cultural concerns of the public.[2] Public debates about adolescents' pornography use often oversimplify how it influences them, assuming that adolescents are uncritical consumers while adults are seen as more discerning.[2] It's unclear which adolescents are most affected by these associations, and there's limited information about the impact on LGBTQ youth.[2] Some behaviors linked to pornography, like casual sex, permissive attitudes, anal sex, or a larger number of partners, may have associated risks under certain circumstances, but they're not inherently harmful. Studies vary in their findings, making it uncertain whether research can definitively answer all questions about the impact of pornography on adolescents.[7]

Sexual behavior

Sexual behavior in adolescents refers to:[2]

  • Engaging in sexual intercourse and different sexual practices.
  • Casual sexual behavior (non-committed relationships).
  • Involvement in sexual risk behavior (increasing adverse consequences).
  • Perpetration and victimization of sexual aggression.

Research suggests that adolescent pornography consumption is linked to sexual intercourse, more experience with casual sex, and a higher likelihood of exercise or experiencing sexual aggression, especially among female adolescents. However, there isn't no evidence connecting frequent pornography consumption to a wider range of sexual practices. Meaningful evidence linking pornography and sexual risk behaviors is lacking.[11] It's important to note that these findings are rough, incomplete approximations. On average, adolescents did not have frequent sexual intercourse. This means that porn use among adolescents is more likely to be related to a low frequency of these behaviors rather than their massive occurrence. The extent of sexual aggression and victimization varies. Some adolescents mimic what they see in pornography.[2] No definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding unprotected or paid sex, but teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases have been associated with pornography use.[11]

Consumption effects on the brain

Those young adults who consume pornography excessively have a higher chance of affecting their frontal judgment areas and reward centers. This overstimulation on an adolescent brain can take over the developmental stage of their brains.[12] Watching pornography often can be addicting, perhaps even negatively impacting one’s neurological structure. The main areas at risk are the brain’s gray matter volume and functional activity. A study selected 64 males, ages ranging from 21 to 45, who all broadly consume pornography. Initially, they were not told about the study’s purpose, instead were just being monitored for their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurements. Later, a survey about their pornography screen time showed an average of slightly more than four hours per week. Finally, the last part of the study included a variety of explicit pictures on porn sites. There was a set of non-sexual pictures of people exercising shown while their brains got scanned. In conclusion, the volume of gray matter is precisely located on the right caudate of the striatum and shrinkage with high pornography use. Additionally, the MRI of the men being measured revealed a weaker function in the part of the brain in charge of motivation.[13]

Gender stereotypical beliefs and permissive behaviors

Gender stereotypical beliefs are understood as a belief that traditional, stereotypical ideas about male and female gender roles and gender relations dominate. These beliefs cover, progressive attitudes towards gender roles, conceptions of women as sexual objects, gender stereotypical beliefs about power imbalance in sexual relationships, and beliefs about gender equality. Overall it indicates that adolescent pornography consumption is linked to less progressive sexual beliefs, but the beliefs are low.[2]

Liberal sexual behaviors are understood as a positive attitude towards casual sex, often outside of  non-binding situation, and romantic relationships. While there is evidence for this association, the impact is generally low. It is therefore possible to speak of a relationship between more frequent pornography use and less strict (rather than more permissive) sexual attitudes.[2]

Perceived realism

Adolescents generally view pornography neither as (socially) realistic nor a useful source of sexual information compared to real-life experiences. However, more frequent consumption of pornography can lead to a perception of it as being "less unrealistic."[2] Some find it to be a reliable source of information if useful content is present.[2] They exhibit "porn literacy," showing critical thinking skills which teens say can be put to better use the older you are and the more experience you have.[3]

The differences between pornography and real sexual situations, according to the adolescents, were: Messages about sex, the body, pleasure, and "risky" sexual acts, the lack of emotion, exaggerated appearance and performance, long duration of sex, the speed of sex,[14] sexual aggression,[2] the roles of women and men in pornography,[8] the inappropriate portrayals of marginalized identities,[3] the loveless content,[8] and the abstinence from condoms[14][8] were described as unrealistic and misleading.[8] Teens described the content as more show than real sex. This was also echoed by youth who have not seen pornography. Some youth were concerned that other consumers (but not themselves), might draw false lessons or unrealistic expectations[3] (through the third-person effect) from pornography[8] and might experience physical harm from replicating pornography.[8]

Sexual self-development

Adolescent sexual self-exploration covers a range of factors including sexual insecurity, depression through pornography,[7] self-objectification and the internalization of beauty ideals, as well as body monitoring,[2] adolescent self-image and body image,[15] preoccupation with sexual issues, sexual dissatisfaction, sexual self-development, sexual arousal, and sexual experiences.[2] Research suggests a connection between pornography use and these aspects, but definitive correlations have not been established.[2] The use of pornography by young people has shown associations with reduced anxiety related to early sexual experiences, higher sexual satisfaction in firm and loose relationships, and increased comfort discussing sex. Some individuals find that viewing bodies in pornography, especially in amateur content, can boost self-esteem.[3]

Experiences

Arab Adolescents grapple with complex emotions regarding pornography. Some experience guilt and shame, struggling to reconcile the emotional and physiological benefits of pornography with their criticisms of the ethics of pornography and the lack of social acceptance of pornography and sexuality in general.[3] Support mechanisms for discussing negative experiences with pornography are lacking. Many parents avoid conversations about it, and adolescents fear punishment if caught so that adults are perceived as ambivalent or uncertain if they had any questions or curiosity about pornography. Some parents avoid conversations about pornography and sex.[3] Peer discussions on the topic are also limited. Some adolescents who participated in studies were only able to discuss their concerns in the studies they participated in because they would not have had the opportunity to do so before. These studies acted as interventions.[3] Open communication and good relationships are seen as crucial in helping adolescents control their consumption. Better conversations about sex and pornography are believed to improve attitudes about sex, reduce stigma, and prevent abuse, reduce the motivation to consume pornography and to show trust and respect to young people. Some adolescents believe that they have the skills to avoid unwanted pornographic content and to mitigate conflicting feelings and potential consequences that may result from viewing pornography. Along with this, they described being able to avoid unwanted content and deal with their negative feelings. Without such discussions and other perspectives, adolescents feel that that leads to pressure to engage in certain sexual acts, lower self-esteem, mismatched expectations, and disappointment in a sexual experience or unnecessary physical pain, normalization of violence, harassment, coercion, and assault. Some women experienced coercion and harassment.[3]

Other

The impact of pornography on adolescents versus adults is still unclear. Risky sexual behavior and certain gender stereotypes linked to pornography were observed in adults, but not in adolescents. Both groups showed a connection between pornography and a permissive sexual attitude.[2] There's a suggestion that adolescents' brains might be more sensitive to explicit material, but due to a lack of research this question cannot be answered definitively.[16]

Addiction Label

There is controversy surrounding whether or not a substantial use of pornography can be labeled as an addiction.[17] However, a mental health disorder may be able to explain the overwhelming drive to participate in sexual practices.[17] There is not a general standard or rigid measure of the amount of pornography usage that can be classified as problematic pornography use (PPU).[18] Analyzing problematic pornography use in individuals results in seeing the link between benefits, incentive, and recollection in their brain activity when shown sexual visuals.[17] Current studies’ findings leave room for some doctors to be skeptical to categorize this as a disorder; though, there is dissatisfaction with the way these have been conducted.[17] There are others concerned by the possible consequences of placing this label on consensual sexual activity and its implications.[17]

Associations of Addiction

Noticing a change in the way you live your life on a daily basis may signal an overuse of pornography, despite there not being a black-and-white amount of time and energy associated with it. Living your life around pornography; caring less about your duties, social relationships, hobbies; and allowing it to have negative effects on your personal and professional life may indicate a potential problem. Ultimately, your sexual life may suffer due to your viewing as you struggle with feelings of dissatisfaction.[17]

Problematic Pornography Use Among Youth

Once puberty is underway, young people are interested in pursuing sexual experiences due to the presence of sex hormones. The convenience factor of pornography is a major reason why they use it as opposed to looking for these experience in the real world. Pleasure neurochemicals are especially motivating during adolescence as adolescents are more susceptible to their effects and create more of them. The access today's youth has to the Internet makes pornography more available to them. Coupled with their desire to engage in sexual experiences during a time when their pleasure neurochemicals are spiked, younger generations may be exposed to PPU.[18]

A 2021 review which compiled evidence from other empirical sources such as surveys found that representations of women in pornography may lead adolescent boys to view women mainly as sexual objects, with probable repercussions for gender equality.[19] The review, however, nowhere claims that it has shown a causal relationship from mainstream pornography viewing to perspectives furthering gender inequality.[19] Besides, it nowhere states if the correlation found is large or small, numbers for it are not given either.[19]

Literature
  • Jochen Peter & Patti M. Valkenburg (2016) Adolescents and Pornography: A Review of 20 Years of Research In: The Journal of Sex Research, 53:4-5, 509–531, March doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441 (free full text) (PDF)
  • Amy J. Peterson, Gillian K. Silver, Heather A. Bell, Stephanie A. Guinosso & Karin K. Coyle (2023) Young People’s Views on Pornography and Their Sexual Development, Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Qualitative Research, American Journal of Sexuality Education, 18:2, 171–209, doi:10.1080/15546128.2022.2096163
  • Bőthe, B., Vaillancourt-Morel, MP., Bergeron, S. et al. Problematic and Non-Problematic Pornography Use Among LGBTQ Adolescents: a Systematic Literature Review. In: Curr Addict Rep 6, 478–494 (2019). doi:10.1007/s40429-019-00289-5 (PDF)

References
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  2. Peter, Jochen; Valkenburg, Patti M. (2016-05-03). "Adolescents and Pornography: A Review of 20 Years of Research". The Journal of Sex Research. 53 (4–5): 2, 7–12, 15, 17. doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 27105446.
  3. Peterson, Amy J.; Silver, Gillian K.; Bell, Heather A.; Guinosso, Stephanie A.; Coyle, Karin K. (2023-04-03). "Young People's Views on Pornography and Their Sexual Development, Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Qualitative Research". American Journal of Sexuality Education. 18 (2): 1, 6, 11, 13, 14–26, 28. doi:10.1080/15546128.2022.2096163. ISSN 1554-6128.
  4. Young, Susan; Cocallis, Kelly (2023-06-02). "A Systematic Review of the Relationship Between Neurodiversity and Psychosexual Functioning in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 19: 6. doi:10.2147/NDT.S319980.
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  6. Gunnoo, Adam; Powell, Christopher (2023-10-01). "The Association Between Pornography Consumption and Perceived Realism in Adolescents: A Meta-analysis". Sexuality & Culture. 27 (5): 2. doi:10.1007/s12119-023-10095-x. ISSN 1936-4822.
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  19. Román García, Óscar; Bacigalupe, Amaia; Vaamonde García, Cristina (4 August 2021). "Relación de la pornografía mainstream con la salud sexual y reproductiva de los/las adolescentes. Una revisión de alcance" [Sexual and reproductive health effects of mainstream pornography use in adolescents]. Revista Española de Salud Pública (in Spanish). 95: e202108102. PMID 34267175. También es necesario tener en cuenta que puede existir una limitación de causalidad inversa relacionada con los hallazgos actuales sobre la posibilidad de que padecer algún determinado problema de salud mental o tener conductas de agresividad puede conllevar a un aumento de consumo de pornografía mainstream.
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