Episyrphus balteatus

Episyrphus balteatus, sometimes called the marmalade hoverfly,[3] is a relatively small hoverfly (9–12 mm) of the Syrphidae family, widespread throughout the Palaearctic region, which covers Europe, North Asia, and North Africa. It is considered the most abundant native hoverfly in Central Europe.[4]

Episyrphus balteatus
Male
Whitecross Green Wood, Oxfordshire
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Syrphidae
Genus: Episyrphus
Species:
E. balteatus
Binomial name
Episyrphus balteatus
(De Geer, 1776)
Synonyms
List

Morphology

The upper side of the abdomen is patterned with orange and black bands. Its color patterns may appear wasp-like to other animals, such as birds, protecting it from predation - an example of Batesian mimicry.[5] The percentage of black and yellow color can change between individuals, and it is modulated by the length and temperature of the pupal period.[6] Females tend to be darker than males.[6]

Two further identification characters are the presence of secondary black bands on the third and fourth dorsal plates and faint greyish longitudinal stripes on the thorax. As in most other hoverflies, males can be easily identified by their holoptic eyes, i.e., left and right compound eyes touching at the top of their heads.[7][8][9][10]

Habitat and life cycle

Episyrphus balteatus can be found throughout the year in various habitats, including urban gardens, visiting flowers for pollen and nectar. They often form dense migratory swarms, which may cause panic among people for their resemblance to wasps. It is among the very few species of flies capable of crushing pollen grains and feeding on them. In controlled experiments, adults of E. balteatus tend to prefer smaller, yellow flowers, with high concentrations of nectar.[11] Adult E. balteatus, while not as efficient as honey bees, are significant and abundant pollinators.[12][13][14]

The larva is terrestrial and feeds on aphids - for this reason, E. balteatus is considered one of the main natural enemies of cereal aphids.[15] In the wild, an E. balteatus larva can consume up to about 400 aphids before pupating.[16]

Migration

E. balteatus is a partially migratory species - - it is one of the migrating hoverflies along other common species such as Eupeodes corollae.[17] Some individuals migrate from northern Europe to southern Europe and north Africa in autumn, seeking warmer climates to spend the winter,[18][19][20] while other adult females can overwinter.[15] It is uncertain if this behavioural difference is controlled genetically; a study in 2013 found no genetic difference between overwintering and migrating populations,[21] while a study in 2018 found evidence of heritability.[22] Transcriptomic analysis discovered that at least 1543 genes are differentially expressed between overwintering and migrating individuals. These genes are involved in numerous physiological functions of the hoverfly, such as "metabolism, muscle structure and function, hormonal regulation, immunity, stress resistance, flight and feeding behaviour, longevity, reproductive diapause and sensory perception".[19]

When migrating, E. balteatus individuals tend to fly below 300 meters of altitude, but many can go beyond 750 m and a few up to almost 1000 meters.[20] They are capable of selecting favourable winds, selecting airstreams above 150 meters and using behavioural tactics to fly southward despite unfavourable winds. This means the flies must have an internal compass (probably a solar compass as in other insects) able to locate the right direction, and a way to detect wind direction.[17]

Given the short lifespan of the insect, it has been suggested that its migration is unidirectional: a population moves south during a single season, and then slowly comes back north during summer across multiple generations.[18] In May 2022 however, tens of thousands of dead E. balteatus were found stranded on a beach in southern France, probably caught by winds during flight, suggesting a massive spring migratory event.[23] E. balteatus migrating north from continental Europe to southern Britain have been detected in May and June, leaving back south between August and September. The autumnal migration however involves many more individuals.[20]

Overwintering females are often found in sheltered locations at the south-facing edges of forests. In summer they tend to move towards the north-facing edges.[24]

Genetics

The genome of Episyrphus balteatus has been sequenced in 2022[19] and published in 2023.[25]

  • Larva
    Larva
  • Pupa
    Pupa
  • Pupa soon before emergence
    Pupa soon before emergence
  • Female marmalade fly feeding on a Veronica speciosa flower
    Female marmalade fly feeding on a Veronica speciosa flower
  • Close-up of the head of a male sitting on a flower of a grey-haired rockrose (Cistus incanus): The fly head has a diameter of 0.1 in (2.5 mm).
    Close-up of the head of a male sitting on a flower of a grey-haired rockrose (Cistus incanus): The fly head has a diameter of 0.1 in (2.5 mm).
  • Group on hogweed
    Group on hogweed

References
  1. Ricarte Sabater, A.R. & Nedeljković (2021). "Episyrphus balteatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T149167680A149167683. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T149167680A149167683.en. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  2. Harris, M. (1780). An exposition of English insects. Vol. Decads III, IV. London: Robson Co. pp. 73–99, 100–138, pls. 21-30, 31–40. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  3. "Marmalade hoverfly - Episyrphus balteatus". Natural England. Archived from the original on November 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
  4. Alhmedi, A.; Haubruge, E.; Francis, F. (2010). "Intraguild interactions and aphid predators: Biological efficiency of Harmonia axyridisand Episyrphus balteatus". Journal of Applied Entomology. 134: 34–44. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0418.2009.01445.x. S2CID 53957766.
  5. Bain, R. S., et al. (2007). The key mimetic features of hoverflies through avian eyes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 274(1621), 1949-54.
  6. Marriott, Cliff G.; j. Holloway, Graham (1998). "Colour Pattern Plasticity in the Hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus: The Critical Immature Stage and Reaction Norm on Developmental Temperature". Journal of Insect Physiology. 44 (2): 113–119. doi:10.1016/S0022-1910(97)00097-8. PMID 12769883.
  7. Ball, S.G.; Morris, R.K.A. (2000). Provisional atlas of British hoverflies (Diptera, Syrphidae). Monks Wood, UK: Biological Record Centre. pp. 167 pages. ISBN 978-1-870393-54-6.
  8. Morris, Roger K. A. (1999). Hoverflies of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-9526065-3-6.
  9. Stubbs, Alan E.; Falk, Steven J. (1983). British Hoverflies: An Illustrated Identification Guide. British Entomological & Natural History Society. p. 253, xvpp.
  10. Van Veen, M.P. (2004). Hoverflies of Northwest Europe, Identification Keys to the Syrphidae (Hardback). Utrecht: KNNV Publishing. p. 254. ISBN 978-90-5011-199-7.
  11. Sutherland, Jamie P.; Sullivan, Matthew S.; Poppy, Guy M. (1999). "The influence of floral character on the foraging behaviour of the hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 93 (2): 157–164. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.1999.00574.x. S2CID 84310308.
  12. Saeed, Shafqat; Sajjad, Asif; Kwon, Ohseok; Kwon, Yong Jung (2008). "Fidelity of Hymenoptera and Diptera pollinators in onion (Allium cepaL.) pollination". Entomological Research. 38 (4): 276–280. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5967.2008.00187.x. S2CID 84429520.
  13. Jauker, Frank; Bondarenko, Birgit; Becker, Heiko C.; Steffan-Dewenter, Ingolf (2012). "Pollination efficiency of wild bees and hoverflies provided to oilseed rape". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 14: 81–87. doi:10.1111/j.1461-9563.2011.00541.x. S2CID 85284468.
  14. Jauker, Frank; Wolters, Volkmar (2008). "Hover flies are efficient pollinators of oilseed rape". Oecologia. 156 (4): 819–823. Bibcode:2008Oecol.156..819J. doi:10.1007/s00442-008-1034-x. PMID 18438687. S2CID 20672962.
  15. Hondelmann, Peter; Poehling, Hans-Michael (2007). "Diapause and overwintering of the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 124 (2): 189–200. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.2007.00568.x. S2CID 85365967.
  16. Tenhumberg, Brigitie (1995). "Estimating Predatory Efficiency of Episyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae) in Cereal Fields". Environmental Entomology. 24 (3): 687–691. doi:10.1093/ee/24.3.687.
  17. Gao, Boya; Wotton, Karl R.; Hawkes, Will L. S.; Menz, Myles H. M.; Reynolds, Don R.; Zhai, Bao-Ping; Hu, Gao; Chapman, Jason W. (2020). "Adaptive strategies of high-flying migratory hoverflies in response to wind currents". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 287 (1928). doi:10.1098/rspb.2020.0406. PMC 7341907. PMID 32486972.
  18. Raymond, Lucie; Vialatte, Aude; Plantegenest, Manuel (2014). "Combination of morphometric and isotopic tools for studying spring migration dynamics in Episyrphus balteatus". Ecosphere. 5 (7): art88. doi:10.1890/ES14-00075.1.
  19. Doyle, Toby; Jimenez‐Guri, Eva; Hawkes, Will L. S.; Massy, Richard; Mantica, Federica; Permanyer, Jon; Cozzuto, Luca; Hermoso Pulido, Toni; Baril, Tobias; Hayward, Alex; Irimia, Manuel; Chapman, Jason W.; Bass, Chris; Wotton, Karl R. (2022). "Genome‐wide transcriptomic changes reveal the genetic pathways involved in insect migration". Molecular Ecology. 31 (16): 4332–4350. doi:10.1111/mec.16588. PMC 9546057. PMID 35801824. S2CID 250358014.
  20. Wotton, Karl R.; Gao, Boya; Menz, Myles H.M.; Morris, Roger K.A.; Ball, Stuart G.; Lim, Ka S.; Reynolds, Don R.; Hu, Gao; Chapman, Jason W. (2019). "Mass Seasonal Migrations of Hoverflies Provide Extensive Pollination and Crop Protection Services". Current Biology. 29 (13): 2167–2173.e5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.05.036. hdl:10871/37621. PMID 31204159. S2CID 189798360.
  21. Raymond, Lucie; Plantegenest, Manuel; Gauffre, Bertrand; Sarthou, Jean-Pierre; Vialatte, Aude (2013). "Lack of Genetic Differentiation between Contrasted Overwintering Strategies of a Major Pest Predator Episyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae): Implications for Biocontrol". PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e72997. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...872997R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072997. PMC 3759392. PMID 24023799.
  22. Dällenbach, Laura J.; Glauser, Alexandra; Lim, Ka S.; Chapman, Jason W.; Menz, Myles H. M. (2018). "Higher flight activity in the offspring of migrants compared to residents in a migratory insect". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 285 (1881). doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2829. PMC 6030531. PMID 29925611.
  23. Fisler, Lisa; Marcacci, Gabriel (2023). "Tens of thousands of migrating hoverflies found dead on a strandline in the South of France". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 16 (2): 306–312. doi:10.1111/icad.12616. S2CID 253916022.
  24. Sarthou, Jean-Pierre; Ouin, Annie; Arrignon, Florent; Barreau, Gaël; Bouyjou, Bernard (April 13, 2005). "Landscape parameters explain the distribution and abundance of Episyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae)" (PDF). European Journal of Entomology. 102 (3): 539–545. doi:10.14411/eje.2005.077. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  25. Hawkes, William L.; Sivell, Olga; Wotton, Karl R. (2023). "The genome sequence of the Marmalade Hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer, 1776)". Wellcome Open Research. 8: 106. doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.19073.1. S2CID 257196467.

Further read
  • Verrall, G.H. (1901). British flies, vol. 8: Platypezidae, Pipunculidae and Syrphidae of Great Britain, reprint, 1969, E. W. Classey, Hampton.
  • Chinery, Michael (2007), Insects of Britain and Western Europe. Domino Guides, A&C Black, London
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