Euler's constant
Euler's constant (sometimes called the Euler–Mascheroni constant) is a mathematical constant, usually denoted by the lowercase Greek letter gamma (γ), defined as the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm, denoted here by log:
![]() The area of the blue region converges to Euler's constant | |
Representations | |
---|---|
Decimal | 0.5772156649015328606065120900824024310421... |
Continued fraction (linear) | [0; 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 4, 3, 13, 5, 1, 1, 8, 1, 2, 4, 1, 1, ...][1] Unknown if periodic Unknown if finite |
Binary | 0.1001001111000100011001111110001101111101... |
Hexadecimal | 0.93C467E37DB0C7A4D1BE3F810152CB56A1CECC3A... |
Here, ⌊ ⌋ represents the floor function.
The numerical value of Euler's constant, to 50 decimal places, is:[2]
Is Euler's constant irrational? If so, is it transcendental?
History
The constant first appeared in a 1734 paper by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, titled De Progressionibus harmonicis observationes (Eneström Index 43). Euler used the notations C and O for the constant. In 1790, the Italian mathematician Lorenzo Mascheroni used the notations A and a for the constant. The notation γ appears nowhere in the writings of either Euler or Mascheroni, and was chosen at a later time perhaps because of the constant's connection to the gamma function.[3] For example, the German mathematician Carl Anton Bretschneider used the notation γ in 1835[4] and Augustus De Morgan used it in a textbook published in parts from 1836 to 1842.[5]
Appearances
Euler's constant appears, among other places, in the following (where '*' means that this entry contains an explicit equation):
- Expressions involving the exponential integral*
- The Laplace transform* of the natural logarithm
- The first term of the Laurent series expansion for the Riemann zeta function*, where it is the first of the Stieltjes constants*
- Calculations of the digamma function
- A product formula for the gamma function
- The asymptotic expansion of the gamma function for small arguments.
- An inequality for Euler's totient function
- The growth rate of the divisor function
- In dimensional regularization of Feynman diagrams in quantum field theory
- The calculation of the Meissel–Mertens constant
- The third of Mertens' theorems*
- Solution of the second kind to Bessel's equation
- In the regularization/renormalization of the harmonic series as a finite value
- The mean of the Gumbel distribution
- The information entropy of the Weibull and Lévy distributions, and, implicitly, of the chi-squared distribution for one or two degrees of freedom.
- The answer to the coupon collector's problem*
- In some formulations of Zipf's law
- A definition of the cosine integral*
- Lower bounds to a prime gap
- An upper bound on Shannon entropy in quantum information theory[6]
- Fisher–Orr model for genetics of adaptation in evolutionary biology[7]
Properties
The number γ has not been proved algebraic or transcendental. In fact, it is not even known whether γ is irrational. Using a continued fraction analysis, Papanikolaou showed in 1997 that if γ is rational, its denominator must be greater than 10244663.[8][9] The ubiquity of γ revealed by the large number of equations below makes the irrationality of γ a major open question in mathematics.[10]
However, some progress has been made. Kurt Mahler showed in 1968 that the number is transcendental (here, and are Bessel functions).[11][3] In 2009 Alexander Aptekarev proved that at least one of Euler's constant γ and the Euler–Gompertz constant δ is irrational;[12] Tanguy Rivoal proved in 2012 that at least one of them is transcendental.[13][3] In 2010 M. Ram Murty and N. Saradha showed that at most one of the numbers of the form
with q ≥ 2 and 1 ≤ a < q is algebraic; this family includes the special case γ(2,4) = γ/4.[3][14] In 2013 M. Ram Murty and A. Zaytseva found a different family containing γ, which is based on sums of reciprocals of integers not divisible by a fixed list of primes, with the same property.[3][15]
Relation to gamma function
γ is related to the digamma function Ψ, and hence the derivative of the gamma function Γ, when both functions are evaluated at 1. Thus:
This is equal to the limits:
Further limit results are:[16]
A limit related to the beta function (expressed in terms of gamma functions) is
Relation to the zeta function
γ can also be expressed as an infinite sum whose terms involve the Riemann zeta function evaluated at positive integers:
Other series related to the zeta function include:
The error term in the last equation is a rapidly decreasing function of n. As a result, the formula is well-suited for efficient computation of the constant to high precision.
Other interesting limits equaling Euler's constant are the antisymmetric limit:[17]
and the following formula, established in 1898 by de la Vallée-Poussin:
where ⌈ ⌉ are ceiling brackets. This formula indicates that when taking any positive integer n and dividing it by each positive integer k less than n, the average fraction by which the quotient n/k falls short of the next integer tends to γ (rather than 0.5) as n tends to infinity.
Closely related to this is the rational zeta series expression. By taking separately the first few terms of the series above, one obtains an estimate for the classical series limit:
where ζ(s, k) is the Hurwitz zeta function. The sum in this equation involves the harmonic numbers, Hn. Expanding some of the terms in the Hurwitz zeta function gives:
where 0 < ε < 1/252n6.
γ can also be expressed as follows where A is the Glaisher–Kinkelin constant:
γ can also be expressed as follows, which can be proven by expressing the zeta function as a Laurent series:
Integrals
γ equals the value of a number of definite integrals:
where Hx is the fractional harmonic number.
The third formula in the integral list can be proved in the following way:
The integral on the second line of the equation stands for the Debye function value of +∞, which is m! ζ(m + 1).
Definite integrals in which γ appears include:
One can express γ using a special case of Hadjicostas's formula as a double integral[10][18] with equivalent series:
An interesting comparison by Sondow[18] is the double integral and alternating series
It shows that log 4/π may be thought of as an "alternating Euler constant".
The two constants are also related by the pair of series[19]
where N1(n) and N0(n) are the number of 1s and 0s, respectively, in the base 2 expansion of n.
We also have Catalan's 1875 integral[20]
Series expansions
In general,
for any α > −n. However, the rate of convergence of this expansion depends significantly on α. In particular, γn(1/2) exhibits much more rapid convergence than the conventional expansion γn(0).[21][22] This is because
while
Even so, there exist other series expansions which converge more rapidly than this; some of these are discussed below.
Euler showed that the following infinite series approaches γ:
The series for γ is equivalent to a series Nielsen found in 1897:[16][23]
In 1910, Vacca found the closely related series[24][25][26][27][28][16][29]
where log2 is the logarithm to base 2 and ⌊ ⌋ is the floor function.
In 1926 he found a second series:
From the Malmsten–Kummer expansion for the logarithm of the gamma function[30] we get:
An important expansion for Euler's constant is due to Fontana and Mascheroni
where Gn are Gregory coefficients.[16][29][31] This series is the special case k = 1 of the expansions
convergent for k = 1, 2, ...
A similar series with the Cauchy numbers of the second kind Cn is[29][32]
Blagouchine (2018) found an interesting generalisation of the Fontana–Mascheroni series
where ψn(a) are the Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind, which are defined by the generating function
For any rational a this series contains rational terms only. For example, at a = 1, it becomes[33][34]
Other series with the same polynomials include these examples:
and
where Γ(a) is the gamma function.[31]
A series related to the Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm is
where Gn(2) are the Gregory coefficients of the second order.[31]
Series of prime numbers:
Asymptotic expansions
γ equals the following asymptotic formulas (where Hn is the nth harmonic number):
- (Euler)
- (Negoi)
- (Cesàro)
The third formula is also called the Ramanujan expansion.
Alabdulmohsin derived closed-form expressions for the sums of errors of these approximations.[32] He showed that (Theorem A.1):
Exponential
The constant eγ is important in number theory. Some authors denote this quantity simply as γ′. eγ equals the following limit, where pn is the nth prime number:
This restates the third of Mertens' theorems.[35] The numerical value of eγ is:[36]
Other infinite products relating to eγ include:
These products result from the Barnes G-function.
In addition,
where the nth factor is the (n + 1)th root of
This infinite product, first discovered by Ser in 1926, was rediscovered by Sondow using hypergeometric functions.[37]
It also holds that[38]
Continued fraction
The continued fraction expansion of γ begins [0; 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 4, 3, 13, 5, 1, 1, 8, 1, 2, 4, 1, 1, 40, ...],[1] which has no apparent pattern. The continued fraction is known to have at least 475,006 terms,[8] and it has infinitely many terms if and only if γ is irrational.
Generalizations
![](../I/Generalisation_of_Euler%E2%80%93Mascheroni_constant.jpg.webp)
Euler's generalized constants are given by
for 0 < α < 1, with γ as the special case α = 1.[39] This can be further generalized to
for some arbitrary decreasing function f. For example,
gives rise to the Stieltjes constants, and
gives
where again the limit
appears.
A two-dimensional limit generalization is the Masser–Gramain constant.
Euler–Lehmer constants are given by summation of inverses of numbers in a common modulo class:[14]
The basic properties are
and if gcd(a,q) = d then
Published digits
Euler initially calculated the constant's value to 6 decimal places. In 1781, he calculated it to 16 decimal places. Mascheroni attempted to calculate the constant to 32 decimal places, but made errors in the 20th–22nd and 31st–32nd decimal places; starting from the 20th digit, he calculated ...1811209008239 when the correct value is ...0651209008240.
Date | Decimal digits | Author | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
1734 | 5 | Leonhard Euler | |
1735 | 15 | Leonhard Euler | |
1781 | 16 | Leonhard Euler | |
1790 | 32 | Lorenzo Mascheroni, with 20–22 and 31–32 wrong | |
1809 | 22 | Johann G. von Soldner | |
1811 | 22 | Carl Friedrich Gauss | |
1812 | 40 | Friedrich Bernhard Gottfried Nicolai | |
1857 | 34 | Christian Fredrik Lindman | |
1861 | 41 | Ludwig Oettinger | |
1867 | 49 | William Shanks | |
1871 | 99 | James W.L. Glaisher | |
1871 | 101 | William Shanks | |
1877 | 262 | J. C. Adams | |
1952 | 328 | John William Wrench Jr. | |
1961 | 1050 | Helmut Fischer and Karl Zeller | |
1962 | 1271 | Donald Knuth | [40] |
1962 | 3566 | Dura W. Sweeney | |
1973 | 4879 | William A. Beyer and Michael S. Waterman | |
1977 | 20700 | Richard P. Brent | |
1980 | 30100 | Richard P. Brent & Edwin M. McMillan | |
1993 | 172000 | Jonathan Borwein | |
1999 | 108000000 | Patrick Demichel and Xavier Gourdon | |
March 13, 2009 | 29844489545 | Alexander J. Yee & Raymond Chan | [41][42] |
December 22, 2013 | 119377958182 | Alexander J. Yee | [42] |
March 15, 2016 | 160000000000 | Peter Trueb | [42] |
May 18, 2016 | 250000000000 | Ron Watkins | [42] |
August 23, 2017 | 477511832674 | Ron Watkins | [42] |
May 26, 2020 | 600000000100 | Seungmin Kim & Ian Cutress | [42][43] |
May 13, 2023 | 700000000000 | Jordan Ranous & Kevin O'Brien | [42] |
References
- Bretschneider, Carl Anton (1837) [1835]. "Theoriae logarithmi integralis lineamenta nova". Crelle's Journal (in Latin). 17: 257–285.
- Havil, Julian (2003). Gamma: Exploring Euler's Constant. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09983-5.
- Ram Murty, M.; Saradha, N. (2010). "Euler–Lehmer constants and a conjecture of Erdos". Journal of Number Theory. 130 (12): 2671–2681. doi:10.1016/j.jnt.2010.07.004. ISSN 0022-314X.
Footnotes
- Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002852 (Continued fraction for Euler's constant)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
- Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001620 (Decimal expansion of Euler's constant (or the Euler-Mascheroni constant), gamma)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
- Lagarias, Jeffrey C. (October 2013). "Euler's constant: Euler's work and modern developments". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 50 (4): 556. arXiv:1303.1856. doi:10.1090/s0273-0979-2013-01423-x. S2CID 119612431.
- Bretschneider 1837, "γ = c = 0,5772156649015328606181120900823..." on p. 260.
- De Morgan, Augustus (1836–1842). The differential and integral calculus. London: Baldwin and Craddoc. "γ" on p. 578.
- Caves, Carlton M.; Fuchs, Christopher A. (1996). "Quantum information: How much information in a state vector?". The Dilemma of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen – 60 Years Later. Israel Physical Society. arXiv:quant-ph/9601025. Bibcode:1996quant.ph..1025C. ISBN 9780750303941. OCLC 36922834.
- Connallon, Tim; Hodgins, Kathryn A. (October 2021). "Allen Orr and the genetics of adaptation". Evolution. 75 (11): 2624–2640. doi:10.1111/evo.14372. PMID 34606622. S2CID 238357410.
- Haible, Bruno; Papanikolaou, Thomas (1998). "Fast multiprecision evaluation of series of rational numbers". In Buhler, Joe P. (ed.). Algorithmic Number Theory. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1423. Springer. pp. 338–350. doi:10.1007/bfb0054873. ISBN 9783540691136.
- Papanikolaou, T. (1997). Entwurf und Entwicklung einer objektorientierten Bibliothek für algorithmische Zahlentheorie (Thesis) (in German). Universität des Saarlandes.
- See also Sondow, Jonathan (2003). "Criteria for irrationality of Euler's constant". Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 131 (11): 3335–3344. arXiv:math.NT/0209070. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-03-07081-3. S2CID 91176597.
- Mahler, Kurt; Mordell, Louis Joel (4 June 1968). "Applications of a theorem by A. B. Shidlovski". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 305 (1481): 149–173. Bibcode:1968RSPSA.305..149M. doi:10.1098/rspa.1968.0111. S2CID 123486171.
- Aptekarev, A. I. (28 February 2009). "On linear forms containing the Euler constant". arXiv:0902.1768 [math.NT].
- Rivoal, Tanguy (2012). "On the arithmetic nature of the values of the gamma function, Euler's constant, and Gompertz's constant". Michigan Mathematical Journal. 61 (2): 239–254. doi:10.1307/mmj/1339011525. ISSN 0026-2285.
- Ram Murty & Saradha 2010.
- Murty, M. Ram; Zaytseva, Anastasia (2013). "Transcendence of Generalized Euler Constants". The American Mathematical Monthly. 120 (1): 48–54. doi:10.4169/amer.math.monthly.120.01.048. ISSN 0002-9890. JSTOR 10.4169/amer.math.monthly.120.01.048. S2CID 20495981.
- Krämer, Stefan (2005). Die Eulersche Konstante γ und verwandte Zahlen (in German). University of Göttingen.
- Sondow, Jonathan (1998). "An antisymmetric formula for Euler's constant". Mathematics Magazine. 71 (3): 219–220. doi:10.1080/0025570X.1998.11996638. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2006-05-29.
- Sondow, Jonathan (2005). "Double integrals for Euler's constant and and an analog of Hadjicostas's formula". American Mathematical Monthly. 112 (1): 61–65. arXiv:math.CA/0211148. doi:10.2307/30037385. JSTOR 30037385.
- Sondow, Jonathan (1 August 2005a). New Vacca-type rational series for Euler's constant and its 'alternating' analog . arXiv:math.NT/0508042.
- Sondow, Jonathan; Zudilin, Wadim (2006). "Euler's constant, q-logarithms, and formulas of Ramanujan and Gosper". The Ramanujan Journal. 12 (2): 225–244. arXiv:math.NT/0304021. doi:10.1007/s11139-006-0075-1. S2CID 1368088.
- DeTemple, Duane W. (May 1993). "A Quicker Convergence to Euler's Constant". The American Mathematical Monthly. 100 (5): 468–470. doi:10.2307/2324300. ISSN 0002-9890. JSTOR 2324300.
- Havil 2003, pp. 75–8.
- Blagouchine 2016.
- Vacca, G. (1910). "A new analytical expression for the number π and some historical considerations". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 16: 368–369. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1910-01919-4.
- Glaisher, James Whitbread Lee (1910). "On Dr. Vacca's series for γ". Q. J. Pure Appl. Math. 41: 365–368.
- Hardy, G.H. (1912). "Note on Dr. Vacca's series for γ". Q. J. Pure Appl. Math. 43: 215–216.
- Vacca, G. (1926). "Nuova serie per la costante di Eulero, C = 0,577...". Rendiconti, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Roma, Classe di Scienze Fisiche". Matematiche e Naturali (in Italian). 6 (3): 19–20.
- Kluyver, J.C. (1927). "On certain series of Mr. Hardy". Q. J. Pure Appl. Math. 50: 185–192.
- Blagouchine, Iaroslav V. (2016). "Expansions of generalized Euler's constants into the series of polynomials in π−2 and into the formal enveloping series with rational coefficients only". J. Number Theory. 158: 365–396. arXiv:1501.00740. doi:10.1016/j.jnt.2015.06.012.
- Blagouchine, Iaroslav V. (2014). "Rediscovery of Malmsten's integrals, their evaluation by contour integration methods and some related results". The Ramanujan Journal. 35 (1): 21–110. doi:10.1007/s11139-013-9528-5. S2CID 120943474.
- Blagouchine, Iaroslav V. (2018). "Three notes on Ser's and Hasse's representations for the zeta-functions". INTEGERS: The Electronic Journal of Combinatorial Number Theory. 18A (#A3): 1–45. arXiv:1606.02044. Bibcode:2016arXiv160602044B.
- Alabdulmohsin, Ibrahim M. (2018). Summability Calculus. A Comprehensive Theory of Fractional Finite Sums. Springer. pp. 147–8. ISBN 9783319746487.
- Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A302120 (Absolute value of the numerators of a series converging to Euler's constant)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
- Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A302121 (Denominators of a series converging to Euler's constant)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
- Ramaré, Olivier (2022). Excursions in Multiplicative Number Theory. Birkhäuser Advanced Texts: Basel Textbooks. Basel: Birkhäuser/Springer. p. 131. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73169-4. ISBN 978-3-030-73168-7. MR 4400952. S2CID 247271545.
- Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A073004 (Decimal expansion of exp(gamma))". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
- Sondow, Jonathan (2003). "An infinite product for eγ via hypergeometric formulas for Euler's constant, γ". arXiv:math.CA/0306008.
- Choi, Junesang; Srivastava, H.M. (1 September 2010). "Integral Representations for the Euler–Mascheroni Constant γ". Integral Transforms and Special Functions. 21 (9): 675–690. doi:10.1080/10652461003593294. ISSN 1065-2469. S2CID 123698377.
- Havil 2003, pp. 117–18.
- Knuth, Donald E. (July 1962). "Euler's Constant to 1271 Places". Mathematics of Computation. American Mathematical Society. 16 (79): 275–281. doi:10.2307/2004048. JSTOR 2004048.
- Yee, Alexander J. (7 March 2011). "Large Computations". www.numberworld.org.
- Yee, Alexander J. "Records Set by y-cruncher". www.numberworld.org. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
Yee, Alexander J. "y-cruncher - A Multi-Threaded Pi-Program". www.numberworld.org. - "Euler-Mascheroni Constant". Polymath Collector. 15 February 2020.
Further reading
- Borwein, Jonathan M.; David M. Bradley; Richard E. Crandall (2000). "Computational Strategies for the Riemann Zeta Function" (PDF). Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics. 121 (1–2): 11. Bibcode:2000JCoAM.121..247B. doi:10.1016/s0377-0427(00)00336-8. Derives γ as sums over Riemann zeta functions.
- Finch, Steven R. (2003). Mathematical Constants. Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications. Vol. 94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81805-2.
- Gerst, I. (1969). "Some series for Euler's constant". Amer. Math. Monthly. 76 (3): 237–275. doi:10.2307/2316370. JSTOR 2316370.
- Glaisher, James Whitbread Lee (1872). "On the history of Euler's constant". Messenger of Mathematics. 1: 25–30. JFM 03.0130.01.
- Gourdon, Xavier; Sebah, P. (2002). "Collection of formulae for Euler's constant, γ".
- Gourdon, Xavier; Sebah, P. (2004). "The Euler constant: γ".
- Karatsuba, E. A. (1991). "Fast evaluation of transcendental functions". Probl. Inf. Transm. 27 (44): 339–360.
- Karatsuba, E.A. (2000). "On the computation of the Euler constant γ". Journal of Numerical Algorithms. 24 (1–2): 83–97. doi:10.1023/A:1019137125281. S2CID 21545868.
- Knuth, Donald (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 75, 107, 114, 619–620. ISBN 0-201-89683-4.
- Lehmer, D. H. (1975). "Euler constants for arithmetical progressions" (PDF). Acta Arith. 27 (1): 125–142. doi:10.4064/aa-27-1-125-142.
- Lerch, M. (1897). "Expressions nouvelles de la constante d'Euler". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. 42: 5.
- Mascheroni, Lorenzo (1790). Adnotationes ad calculum integralem Euleri, in quibus nonnulla problemata ab Eulero proposita resolvuntur. Galeati, Ticini.
- Sondow, Jonathan (2002). "A hypergeometric approach, via linear forms involving logarithms, to irrationality criteria for Euler's constant". Mathematica Slovaca. 59: 307–314. arXiv:math.NT/0211075. Bibcode:2002math.....11075S. doi:10.2478/s12175-009-0127-2. S2CID 16340929. with an Appendix by Sergey Zlobin
External links
- "Euler constant". Encyclopedia of Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 [1994].
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Euler–Mascheroni constant". MathWorld.
- Jonathan Sondow.
- Fast Algorithms and the FEE Method, E.A. Karatsuba (2005)
- Further formulae which make use of the constant: Gourdon and Sebah (2004).