Fenshen

Zhang Hua's c. 290 Bowuzhi "Records of Diverse Matters" names sixteen historical fangshi brought together by Cao Cao, a powerful general at the end of the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), including Zuo Ci who could biànxíng 變形 "change form; transform".

The names of the 'Master of Technic' whom Cao Cao assembled were Wang Zhen [王真] from Shangdang, Feng Junda [封君達] from Longxi, Gan Shi [甘始] from Ganling [甘陵], Lu Nu Sheng [魯女生], and Hua Tuo, styled Yuanhua, from the land of Qiao; Dongguo Yannian [東郭延年], Tang Yu [唐霅], Leng Shou Guang [冷壽光], Pu Shi [卜式] from Henan, Zhang Diao [張貂], Ji Zixun [薊子訓], Fei Chang Fang [費長房] from Runan, Xian Nu Gu [鮮奴辜], and Zhao Sheng Shi [趙聖卿], the military official for the Wei, from Henan; Que Jian [卻儉], styled Mengjie, from Yangcheng, and Zuo Ci, styled Yuanfang, from Lujiang.[13]^: 121

The above sixteen, according to statements made by [Cao Cao's sons] emperor Wen of the Wei (i.e. Cao Pi), the king of Dong'e (i.e. Cao Zhi), and Zong Changtong [仲長統], could all refrain from eating grains, make themselves invisible, and go in and out without passing over the threshold of the door. Zuo Ci could change his form [能变形], deceive people's vision and hearing, dispel evil spirits and the like. They were the sort of people whom the Record of the Rites of Zhou (Zhouli) calls 'mystifiers of the common folk' [怪民] and the Wangzhi [chapter of the Liji] refers to as 'Holding to the Left path' [挾左道者].[13]^{: 121–122}

The earliest reliable descriptions of fenshen and fenxing are found in two c. 320 texts compiled by the Jin Dynasty Daoist scholar Ge Hong (282-343), the Baopuzi or Master who Embraces Simplicity and the Shenxian Zhuan or Biographies of Divine Transcendents.

Two Baopuzi Inner Chapters mention multiplying or dividing the body. "Truth on Earth" (18, 地真) uses fenxing 分形 "divide the body" twice, xingfen 形分 "body division" once, and shenfen 身分"body division" once. The context describes three meditation techniques, Shou xuanyi 守玄一 Guarding the Mysterious One, Shouyi 守一 Guarding the One, and Mingjing 明鏡 Bright Mirror.

Mystery-Unity is seen only in the sun. The search for It begins in the sun, and is described as "knowing white and preserving black" [所謂知白守黑] or "unsuccessful in the desire for death" [欲死不得者也]. To begin with, you must purify yourself and fast for a hundred days. Only then may you go to a teacher and seek It, but then It can be obtained in not more than three or four days; once you possess It you will never lose It provided you take steps to preserve It. The preservation of Mystery-Unity consists in imagining yourself as being divided into three persons [守玄一並思其身分為三人]. Once these three have become visible, you can continue to increase the number to several dozen, all like yourself [三人已見又轉益之可至數十人皆如己身], who may be concealed or revealed, and all of whom are automatically in possession of secret oral directions. This may be termed a process for multiplying the body [此所謂分形之道]. Through this method [Zuo Ci], [Ji Liao], and my uncle [Ge Xuan] could be in several dozen places at one time. When guests were present they could be one host speaking the guests in the house, another host greeting guests beside the stream, and still another host making casts with his fishing line, but the guests were unable to distinguish which was he true one.[8]^{: 305–306}

Robinet notes that Ge Xuan's mundane activities do not distract him from the "major occupation of all Taoists—dreaming alongside running water".[9]^: 49

The context continues with Ge Hong quoting "my teacher", Zheng Yin 鄭隱 who was a disciple of Ge Xuan, about methods for body multiplication.

My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror [守一兼修明鏡], and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression [能分形為數十人衣服面貌皆如一也]. My teacher also used to say that you should take the great medicines diligently if you wished to enjoy Fullness of Life [欲長生當勤服大藥], and that you should use metal solutions and a multiplication of your person if you wished to communicate with the gods [欲得通神當金水分形]. By multiplying the body, the three Hun and the seven Po are automatically seen within the body [形分則自見其身中之三魂七魄], and in addition it becomes possible to meet and visit with the powers of heaven and the deities of earth and to have all the gods of the mountains and rivers in one's service.[8]^: 306

This "metal solutions" translates jīnshuǐ 金水 Gold Water, referring to Gold Liquor, an alchemical elixir prepared from gold, mercury, saltpeter, and realgar.

"Looking Farther Afield" (19, 遐覽) uses huaxing 化形 "transform the body" and fenxing "divide the body" referring to a lost text, the Yunu yinwei 玉女隱微 Latency of the Jade Woman.

By its method people can change into flying birds or stalking animals [化形為飛禽走獸]. Clouds are raised and rain brought for an area a hundred miles square by means of metal, wood, jade, or rock. Snow can be produced in the same fashion. By its method people cross large streams without a boat or weir. They split themselves into thousands of persons [分形為千人]. They fly high on the winds; pass in and out of barriers; exhale breath of seven colors. While sitting still, they can see into all eight points of the compass and even to things underground. They emit light shining for thousands of feet; in a dark room, they are their own light. The book does indeed teach a great art.[8]^{: 316–317}

The three xian transcendents Zuo Ci 左慈, Ge Xuan 葛玄, and Ji Liao 薊遼 or Li Zixun 薊子訓 mentioned as masters of fenxing are more fully described in Guo's other compilation below.

Five Shenxian zhuan hagiographies of Daoist xian describe fenxing 分形 or fenshen 分身 body division, usually resulting from the adept taking waidan alchemical elixirs.

First, Zhang Daoling (34-156 CE), first patriarch of the Way of the Celestial Masters, founded the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice movement in 142, and eventually controlled a prosperous theocratic state in present-day Sichuan.

On account of all this, Zhang Ling obtained much wealth, which he used to buy the necessary medicinal ingredients for synthesizing elixirs. When the elixirs were completed, he ingested only half the dosage, not wishing to ascend to Heaven immediately. As a result, he gained the ability to divide himself into several dozen persons [能分形化作數十人]. Now, there was a pond outside the gate of Zhang's residence, on which he frequently went boating to amuse himself. Meanwhile, however, many Daoist guests would be going and coming in his courtyard. There would always be one Zhang Ling in the courtyard, conversing, eating, and drinking with these guests, while the real Zhang was out on the pond.[10]^: 351

Second, Zuo Ci was a Daoist master who allegedly obtained the alchemical classics Scripture of Nine Elixirs and the Scripture of Gold Liquor from inside a cave on Mount Tianzhu, and mastering their techniques made him become "capable of transforming into a myriad different forms". Zuo uses his shapeshifting ability both to amuse and to taunt rulers. "Behind the amusing and the taunting lies a single lesson: transcendence-seeking adepts are of a superior order of being; rulers' appropriate response to them is respect and veneration, and any attempts to dominate or manipulate are futile."[10]^: 283.

During the end of the Han dynasty (189-220 CE), the prominent general Cao Cao became Grand chancellor and founded what later became the state of Cao Wei. When Cao Cao heard of Zuo Ci's supernatural powers, including the ability to live without eating, he summoned him to court and incarcerated Zuo under supervision without any food for one year. Upon seeing that Zuo had remained in perfect health, Cao concluded that he was a sorcerer, and decided to execute him. Zuo Ci immediately realized Cao's intent, managed to magically disappear, and returned home.

Duke Cao was now even more determined to have him killed, and he also wanted to test whether Zuo could avoid death, so he gave orders to have him apprehended. As Cao's men approached, Zuo fled into a flock of sheep, and his pursuers, losing sight of him, suspected that he might have transformed himself into one of the sheep. They had the sheep counted. Originally there had been an even thousand of them, but now there was one extra, so they knew that Zuo had indeed transformed himself. They announced: "Master Zuo, if you're in there, just come out; we won't hurt you." Then one of the sheep knelt down and spoke words, saying, "Who would have thought I'd be pardoned?" When the pursuers tried to seize that one sheep, all of the other sheep knelt down and said, "Who would have thought I'd be pardoned?" So the pursuers [gave up and] left.[10]^{: 280–281}

Later on, someone learned Zuo Ci's whereabouts and informed Cao Cao, he once again sent soldiers who captured him. Although Zuo could have escaped, he deliberately allowed himself to be arrested in order to demonstrate his divine transformations.

He was taken into prison. When the guards there were ready to torture and interrogate him, there was one Zuo inside the cell door and another Zuo outside it, and they did not know which one to torture. When Cao was informed, he despised Zuo even more, and ordered that he be taken out of the city and killed. As they were taking him out of the city, Zuo suddenly vanished. So they locked the city gates and searched for him. It was announced that [they were searching for a man who] was blind in one eye and wearing a linen cloth wrapped on his head and a one-layer gown. The moment this announcement was made, the entire city full of people, numbering several tens of thousands, all turned into men blind in one eye wearing a linen cloth on their head and a one-layer gown. So in the end they did not know which one to seize. Cao then put out an all-points order that Zuo Ci was to be killed on sight. Someone saw and recognized Zuo, so they beheaded him and presented [the head] to Cao. Cao was overjoyed. When he inspected the head, however, it turned out to be only a bundle of straw. When someone went back to search for Zuo's corpse, it had vanished.[10]^: 281

Specifically, the one-eyed men all wore qing gejin danyi 青葛巾單衣 "a green kudzu-cloth headwrap and an unlined garment". Zuo Ci used what was later called bingjie 兵解 "escape by execution", an uncommon form of shijie "escape by means of a simulated corpse", and the Baopuzi says, "Zuo Ci performed 'martial escape' [bingjie 兵解] but did not die".[10]^: 286[8]^: 208

Third, the Shenxian zhuan has a detailed biography of Ge Xuan (164–244), who was the great-uncle of the compiler Ge Hong, that mentions fenxing. The first line states that Ge Xuan was a student of Zuo Ci who gave him the alchemical Scripture on the Elixirs of the Nine [Tripods] and the Scripture on the Elixir of Gold Liquor.

Ge Xuan breathing fire to warm his guests

A narrative about Ge Xuan entertaining visitors, compare Zhang Daoling above, mentions body division.

Ge Xuan often entertained guests. He would go out to welcome the latecomers, while, meantime, seated and talking with the other guests was another Ge Xuan. When sending guests off, he did the same thing. [Once] when the weather was cold Ge told his guests, "It is impossible in my humble abode for each of you to have his own fire, but I invite you to warm yourselves in common." He then opened his mouth and exhaled flames, which quickly filled the room. All of the guests felt as if they were under a bright sun, but neither were they too warm.[10]^: 154

Fourth, the hagiography of Ji Liao 薊遼 or Ji Zixun 薊子訓 records that he was famous for his paranormal abilities, including bringing back to life a dead child who Ji had accidentally killed. Many aristocrats in the capital of Chang'an wanted to meet Ji Zixun, and when they learned that Ji's young next-door neighbor was a student at the Imperial Academy, they promised that if he could get Ji to come to the capital, they would ensure that the student passed his exams and would become a wealthy official. Ji Zixun agreed in order to help his neighbor and gave a day when he would come to Chang'an. On that day, Ji left in the morning and arrived at the capital before noon, having traveled over a thousand li ("Chinese miles") in a few hours, he then asked the student,

"So, who wants to see me?" "A great many people want to see you, Master," said the student. "We don't want to keep them waiting. Just let me know where you'll be staying, and I'll see that they all come to you." Ji replied, "They don't need to come here. I've just traveled a thousand li; don't you think we can manage this? Tell each of them today to start preparing for a guest. I will set out at noon and will decide at the last minute whom I shall visit first." The student, as instructed, relayed this message to the notables, each of whom sprinkled and swept his chambers. Precisely at noon, Ji Zixun went to each one of the twenty-three places in question. There were twenty-three Ji's, one at each residence. Each of the notables was delighted, thinking that he was the first to have been visited by Ji. When they met the next day, as arranged, to compare experiences, they realized that they had each simultaneously had a Ji Zixun in their home. The clothing and countenance of each one was the same; only their discourse was different, depending on what questions each host had asked the guest to answer. Furthermore, each host had laid out food and drink for Ji, and he had partaken of them with complete appropriateness at each place. People near and far were astonished by this.[10]^: 170

Although the aristocrats clamored to see more of Ji he was not interested and said he was going to leave.

Just after he had cleared the gate, the lane outside was clogged with a crowd of notables arriving there. The student said to them, "He has just left. He will be the one heading east, riding a gray mule." At this, each of them spurred his horse to chase after Ji. From a distance it appeared that the mule was sauntering along at a leisurely pace, but none of the horses could catch up to him. This went on for half a day, with the distance between them always holding steady at about one li. In the end none of them could catch up, so they quit and returned home.[10]^: 170

Calling this account of Ji Zixun escaping astride his slow mule "a fine narrative expression of the near-yet-far, accessible-yet-not quality of the transcendent and his arts", Campany says "his feat of body division" (fenxing or fenshen) multilocality is one of the most vivid depictions of this art" in the Shenxian zhuan.[10]^: 171

Fifth, the later-attested hagiography for Yuzi 玉子 Jade Master includes fenxing in a list of supernatural abilities.

He was thoroughly versed in the meanings of the Five Phases, using them to nourish his nature; cure illnesses; dispel misfortune; instantly call forth wind, clouds, thunder, and rain; and change plants, rocks, and pottery into domestic animals, dragons, and tigers. He could divide his form so as to become several hundred thousand at once [分形為數百千人], and he could walk on rivers and seas. By spitting out water, he could form pearls and jades, and they would not revert [to water]. He could make horses from balls of mud, and they would go a thousand li in a day.[10]^: 370