Fergus of Galloway

Fergus's name as it appears on folio 35v of British Library Cotton Julius A VII (the Chronicle of Mann): "Fergus de Galwedia"[2]

Fergus's familial origins are unknown.[3] He is not accorded a patronym in contemporary sources,[4] and his later descendants are traced no further than him in their charters.[5][note 1] The fact that he tends to be styled "of Galloway" in contemporary sources suggests that he was the head of the most important family in the region. Such appears to have been the case with Fergus's contemporary Freskin, a significant settler in Moray, who was styled de Moravia.[15]

One source that may possibly cast light on Fergus's familial origins is Roman de Fergus,[16] a mediaeval Arthurian romance, mainly set in southern Scotland,[17] which tells the tale of a knight who may represent Fergus himself.[18] The name of the knight's father in this source is a form of the name borne by Fergus's neighbouring contemporary Somairle mac Gilla Brigte, Lord of Argyll, and could be evidence that Fergus's father bore the same name.[19][note 2] On the other hand, instead of being evidence of any historical relationship, the names could have been employed by the romance merely because they were regarded as stereotypically Gallovidian.[21] In any case, there is reason to suspect that the romance is a literary pastiche or parody of the compositions of Chrétien de Troyes;[22] and besides the coincidence of names, the tale has little to commend it as an authoritative source for the historical Fergus.[23]

Despite the uncertainty surrounding his origins, it is possible that Fergus was of Norse-Gaelic and native Gallovidian ancestry.[24] Traditionally, the Gallovidians appear to have looked towards the Isles instead of Scotland, and the core of his family's lands seems to have centred in valley of the river Dee and the coastal area around Whithorn, regions of substantial Scandinavian settlement.[25] In any case, the fact that Fergus died as an old man in 1161 suggests that he was born before 1100.[26]

One of the mounds in Lochfergus, a now-drained lochan near Kirkcudbright, where Fergus may have had a fortress[27]

Fergus first appears on record in about 1136×1141, when he and his son, Uhtred, witnessed the grant of the lands of Partick to the church of St Kentigern at Glasgow.[28][note 3] The exact extent of the twelfth-century Lordship of Galloway is unclear.[37] Surviving acta of Fergus and Uhtred reveal a concentration of endowments in central Galloway, between the rivers Urr and Fleet. Subsequent grants of lands by later descendants of Fergus in the Dee valley could represent the expansion of territory from this original core.[38] There is evidence indicating that Fergus's domain extended into western Galloway as well. His descendants were certainly associated with the castle of Cruggleton and dealt with lands in the vicinity.[39]

In 1140, during the return journey of Máel Máedoc Ua Morgair, Archbishop of Armagh from Clairvaux to Ulster, the latter made landfall at Cruggleton, as evidenced by Vita Sancti Malachiae, composed by Bernard of Clairvaux.[40] Although this source associates the castle with the Scots, it seems unlikely that Scottish royal authority extended to the Gallovidian coast, and the statement could therefore be a result of confusion with Máel Máedoc's previous stay at the castle of Carlisle, then controlled by David I, King of Scotland. In fact, Máel Máedoc's visit to Cruggleton may have involved the local lord of the region,[39] conceivably Fergus himself.[41] The mid-twelfth-century lordship, therefore, seems to have been centred in the region of Wigtown Bay and the mouth of the river Dee.[39]

The ruinous castle of Cruggleton from a distance. This fortress was an ancient Gallovidian power centre,[42] and the castle itself may have been built by Fergus's grandson, Roland fitz Uhtred.[43]

The fact that Gilla Brigte, who may well have been Fergus's eldest child, later appears to have drawn his power from west of the river Cree could be evidence that this man's mother was a member of a prominent family from this region. Such an alliance could also explain Fergus's apparent westward expansion.[44] Whatever the case, the fact that the Diocese of Whithorn was revived in about 1128, possibly at the hands of Fergus himself, could indicate that he purposely established an episcopal see that encompassed the entirety of his domain.[45] The apparent extension of Fergus's authority into western Galloway may have been facilitated by the disintegration of the expansive nearby Kingdom of the Isles. Upon the death of the reigning Guðrøðr Crovan, King of the Isles, the Isles plunged into chaos, enduring periods of vicious dynastic kin-strife, overwhelming Norwegian overlordship, and Irish intrusion as well. By the end of the first quarter of the twelfth century, however, Guðrøðr Crovan's youngest son, Óláfr, seems to have been reinserted into the Isles by Henry I, King of England. This restoration of the Crovan dynasty appears to have formed part of the English Crown's extension of influence into the Irish Sea region.[46] Another aspect of this expansion was the establishment of David, a younger brother of the reigning Alexander I, King of Scotland, as Henry I's vassal.[47]

Seal of Alexander I, King of Scotland, apparent brother-in-law of Fergus

There is a considerable amount of evidence indicating that Fergus married a daughter of Henry I (many believe it was Elizabeth Fitzroy).[48] For example, there is documentary evidence suggesting that all three of Fergus's children—Uhtred, Gilla Brigte, and Affraic—were related to the English royal family.[49] Specifically, Uhtred was called a cousin of Henry I's grandson, Henry II, King of England, by Roger de Hoveden.[50] Although sources specifically concerning Gilla Brigte fail to make a similar claim, potentially indicating that he had a different mother than Uhtred,[51] Gilla Brigte's son, Donnchad, Earl of Carrick, was certainly regarded as a kinsman of Henry II's son and successor, John, King of England.[52] In regard to Affraic, Robert de Torigni, Abbot of Mont Saint-Michel remarked that her son, Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of Dublin and the Isles, was related to Henry II through the latter's mother, Matilda,[53] one of Henry I's daughters.[54]

Henry I, King of England as depicted in British Library Royal 14 C VII

Henry I appears to have had about twenty-four illegitimate children.[55] Although the name and identity of Fergus's wife is unknown,[3] she would seem to have been one of Henry I's numerous illegitimate daughters through which the king forged marital alliances with neighbouring princes along the periphery of his Anglo-Norman realm.[56] The date of Uhtred's earliest attestation suggests that he was born in about 1123/1124 at the latest, whilst the fact that Guðrøðr was old enough to render homage to the Norwegian king in 1153 suggests that Affraic herself was born no later than about 1122. Such birth dates suggest that Fergus's marriage dates to a period when the English Crown consolidated authority in the north-west and extended its influence into the Irish Sea. From the perspective of the English, an alliance between Henry I and Fergus would have secured an understanding with the man who controlled an important part of the north western flank of the Anglo-Norman realm.[57] In fact, one of Henry I's bastard daughters, Sybilla, was wed to the reigning Alexander, seemingly not long after the latter's accession.[58] Fergus's own apparent marriage, therefore, appears to evidence not only his pre-eminent status in Galloway itself, but the degree of political sovereignty he possessed as its ruler.[59] The unions of Alexander and Fergus evidence Henry I's intent of extending English authority north of the Solway Firth.[60]

David I, King of Scotland as he is depicted in a mid-twelfth-century royal charter

The early twelfth century saw the rise of Alexander's younger brother, David.[61] The latter's close connections with the English likely contributed to his eventual acquisition of a substantial part of southern Scotland from Alexander.[62] In about 1113, David married Maud de Senlis, a wealthy English widow, and through her came into possession of extensive lordship that came to be known as the Honour of Huntingdon.[63] As the mid-part of the century approached, the balance of power along the northern part of the Anglo-Norman realm began to shift in favour of David.[61][note 4] In 1120, Henry I's only legitimate son died along with Richard d'Avranches, Earl of Chester in the White Ship disaster. The latter's lordship in the Welsh March was a critical region of Henry I's realm, and the English king responded by transplanting Ranulf le Meschin from his lordship of Carlisle to Richard d'Avranches' former lordship along the Welsh frontier.[65]

Upon Alexander's death in 1124, David succeeded to the throne.[66] The latter's subsequent endowment of Annandale to Robert de Brus appears to have not only signalled the Scottish Crown's intention of consolidating control of the region, but served as a declaration of the kingdom's claims to Cumbria.[67] Fergus's marriage to Henry I's daughter, which appears to date to about this period, may have been arranged with such developments in mind. If so, the union could have been orchestrated as a means to not only compensate for Ranulf's removal, but to counter the dramatic rise of David and the resultant imbalance of power his ascent created.[68] With Ranulf thus vacated from the north, Henry I had filled the power vacuum with various so-called "new men".[61] One such incomer may have been Robert de Brus, a Norman who had previously received extensive lands from the English Crown.[69] In fact, it is possible that it was in the wake of Ranulf's removal that Robert de Brus originally received the lordship of Annandale. If so, the latter may have been inserted into the region by Henry I, or perhaps through collaborative effort between Henry I and his then-vassal David as a means of securing the Anglo-Scottish border.[70][note 5] The apparent rise of Fergus at about this time may have also played a part in the infeftment of Annandale.[72]

Marginal illustration in British Library Royal 14 C II (Chronica) of the standard after which the Battle of the Standard is named

Henry I himself was married to David's older sister, Edith, a union which closely bound him to the Scottish royal house.[73] For as long as Henry I lived, relations between him and David remained harmonious. When the former died in 1135, however, the peace between the neighbouring realms was shattered when his nephew, Stephen of Blois, Count of Boulogne and Mortain, successfully seized the throne.[74] Before the end of the year, the Scots surged forth and seized Carlisle and Cumberland before peace was restored. Relations broke down the following year, and the Scots again invaded in 1137, seizing Northumberland, and pushed forth towards York.[75] The contemporary accounts of the English chroniclers Richard Hexham[76] and Ailred, Abbot of Rievaulx single out Gallovidian soldiers for their excessive atrocities in David's campaign.[77] Disaster struck the Scots in 1138 at the Battle of the Standard, when David's forces were utterly overcome by the English near Northallerton.[78]

Although Gallovidians clearly took part in David's campaigning, there is no specific evidence connecting Fergus to the operations until after operations ceased.[79] It is possible that Fergus's attestation of 1136 could have had bearing on Gallovidian participation in the king's campaigning.[80] If Fergus's wife was indeed a bastard of Henry I, Fergus himself had a stake in the unfolding English succession crisis, as she would have been a half-sister of Stephen's opponent, Matilda,[81] whom Henry I had nominated as his royal successor.[82] Explicit confirmation of Fergus's involvement may exist in the terms of the subsequent peace treaty, as Richard Hexham recorded that one of the hostages that was handed over to the English for surety was the son of an earl named Fergus.[83] The fact that there was no Scottish earl of that name suggests that, unless Richard Hexham was mistaken, it was Fergus himself who was referred to. In any case, after this date there is no further evidence of Fergus's involvement in Anglo-Scottish affairs.[84]

Divisions within the Lordship of Galloway (coloured green) and surrounding lordships in the twelfth century.[85][note 6] The Diocese of Whithorn encompassed all Gallovidan regions except Desnes Ioan, which fell under the Scottish Diocese of Glasgow, and appears to have been only incorporated into the lordship during the tenure of Fergus's sons.

In about 1128, the Diocese of Whithorn was revived after three centuries had passed since the consecration of the last diocesan bishop.[86] The revival itself is revealed by a papal mandate dated December 1128,[87] and the record of the oath of the bishop-elect, Gilla Aldan, to Thurstan, Archbishop of York between about 1128 and 1140.[88] It is uncertain who was the driving force behind the revival. David's known ecclesiastical activities could suggest that he was responsible. On the other hand, the extent of David's authority in Galloway is questionable. As for Fergus himself, there is no conclusive proof that he controlled the lordship at this point in time,[89] or that he himself established the see.[90]

The fact that Gilla Aldan was likely of native origin—as opposed to David's apparent preference for Anglo-Norman clergy—and the fact that Gilla Aldan professed obedience to the Archbishop of York—an ecclesiast whom David was attempting to exclude from influencing the Scottish Church—would both appear to indicate Gilla Aldan was a non-Scottish appointment.[91] If Fergus was indeed responsible for Whithorn's revival, it would have almost certainly aided his royal aspirations since securing ecclesiastical independence could have been part of the process of ensuring political independence.[92] Gilla Aldan's successor was Christian, a man who was consecrated in 1154 by Hugh d'Amiens, Archbishop of Rouen, who in turn may have been acting as a proxy for Roger de Pont l'Evêque, Archbishop-elect of York.[93]

Fergus and his family were remarkable ecclesiastical patrons, working with Augustinians, Benedictines, Cistercians, and Premonstratensians.[94] Surviving charter evidence reveals that Fergus granted the lands of Dunrod, St Mary's Isle (upon which a priory was at some point erected), and nearby Galtway to the Augustinian abbey of Holyrood.[95] A fifteenth-century list of properties belonging to the Knights Hospitaller reveals that Fergus had granted this order of the lands of Galtway (within the mediaeval parishes of Balmaclellan and Dalry) at some point in his career.[33] This transaction appears to further evidence Fergus's alignment with the English Crown.[61]

Confirmation charter noting Fergus's grant of lands of Dunrod to the Scottish abbey of Holyrood.[96] Fergus's name appears on the sixth line.

The necrology of the abbey of Newhouse states that Fergus was the founder of a Premonstratensian house at Whithorn.[97] Both he and Christian are stated by the necrology of the abbey of Prémontré to have founded a monastery at Whithorn.[98] Christian's tenure as bishop (1154–1186), and Fergus's reign as lord (×1160), suggest that the priory of Whithorn was founded at some point between about 1154 and 1160.[99] According to the annals of Maurice of Prato, this house was transformed into a Premonstratensian house by Christian in about 1177.[100] These sources, therefore, appear to reveal that Fergus was responsible for the establishment of a possibly Augustinian house at Whithorn, whilst Christian was responsible for its later refoundation as a Premonstratensian institution.[101] Such a switch was not an unknown occurrence in England or on the Continent.[102]

The ruinous remains of the Cistercian abbey of Dundrennan, perhaps founded or co-founded by Fergus. It is possible that monastery was founded partly as an act of penitence for Gallovidian atrocities committed in 1138 during the Scottish Crown's invasion of northern England.

Either Fergus or David—or perhaps both Fergus and David—may have been responsible for the foundation of the abbey of Dundrennan, a Cistercian house situated well within the confines of Fergus's lordship.[103] John Fordun and Walter Bower accord its foundation solely to David,[104] although the near contemporary John Hexham failed to note the house amongst David's known foundations.[105] The fact that Walter Daniel, a Cistercian monk from the community at Rievaulx, was highly critical of Galloway and its inhabitants may be evidence that Fergus was unlikely to have been the sole founder.[106] David's own close connections with the Cistercians could suggest that the monastery owed its formation, as a daughter house of Rievaulx, to cooperation between David and Fergus.[107]

The abbey of Dundrennan appears to have been founded in about 1142,[108] which in turn places its formation at a time when David had extended his power in the south west.[107] Such a date also places the foundation at about the time Máel Máedoc was in the region, which in turn may hint at his own involvement.[109] In any case, if Fergus and David were involved in the abbey's endowment, the fact that it was colonised by Cistercians from Rievaulx suggests that it was somewhat of a penitential foundation in regard to the infamous Gallovidian contribution at the Battle of the Standard four years previously.[110] Furthermore, the fact that Thurstan himself had been responsible for the English resistance meant that Fergus had warred against his own spiritual overlord, and had almost certainly endured ecclesiastical repercussions as a result.[111] In the eyes of the Cistercians, Fergus and David were both responsible for failing to curb atrocities committed during the campaign, and Fergus himself was held accountable by Walter Daniel's Vita Ailredi for thousands of deaths.[112]

Soulseat Loch, sometimes called the Green Lake,[113] where the abbey of Soulseat once stood. The abbey could be identical to "Viride Stagnum" ("green lake"),[114] where Máel Máedoc founded a monastery.

Another religious house possibly founded by Fergus was the abbey of Soulseat, a Premonstratensian house seated near Stranraer.[115] Walter Bower and the necrologies certainly state as such.[116] However, the fact that this house appears to be identical to the "Viride Stagnum" attested by the contemporary Vita Sancti Malachiae seems to be evidence that Soulseat originated as a Cistercian house founded by Máel Máedoc himself.[117] If Máel Máedoc and Fergus met during the former's apparent stay in Cruggleton, it is conceivable that Fergus granted him the lands upon which he founded a religious house at Soulseat.[118] If Máel Máedoc indeed founded a Cistercian house on this site, it clearly was converted to a Premonstratensian monastery not long afterwards,[119] under the advocacy of Fergus.[120] The church of Cruggleton, near the site of the like-named castle, could have also been constructed by Fergus.[121]

The ruinous remains of the Augustinian abbey of Holyrood, where Fergus retired in 1160

Although the late mediaeval Hystoria Fundacionis Prioratus Insule de Traile claims that Fergus founded the priory of St Mary's Isle,[122] the fantastical foundation claims preserved by this source are not corroborated by contemporary sources.[123] According to a confirmation charter dating to within the decade after Fergus's death, Fergus granted the house to the abbey of Holyrood.[124] A confirmation charter of William I, King of Scotland reveals that the priory of St Mary's Isle may have been in existence by the time of Fergus's grandson, Roland fitz Uhtred, Lord of Galloway,[125] although the first recorded prior appears in the thirteenth century.[126] Fergus's supposed links with this house, therefore, are dubious.[123] Although Walter Bower declared that Fergus was responsible for the foundation of the abbey of Tongland, his great-grandson, Alan fitz Roland, Lord of Galloway, appears to have founded it in the thirteenth century.[127] The erroneous attribution of Fergus to this house may be the result of an attempt to enhance the antiquity of its establishment by linking it with the progenitor of Alan's family.[128]

The inspiration behind Fergus's ecclesiastical patronage is uncertain. On one hand, it is conceivable that he was imitating or competing with the extensive patronage of the Scottish monarchy.[130] On the other hand, familial connections with the rulers of England and the Isles could have played a part in his ecclesiastical interests. Contact with influential ecclesiasts like Máel Máedoc and Ailred could have also inspired Fergus's benefactions.[131][note 7]

Furthermore, the introduction of Augustinians and Premonstratensians into Galloway may have been part of a process of revitalising the newly reformed diocese.[135] The construction of ecclesiastical buildings, much like castles, was often a means by which mediaeval rulers displayed their pre-eminent status, which in turn could explain Fergus's ecclesiastical activities.[136] In effect, his religious foundations may evince attempts to assert his authority in the region.[137] While the foundation of an episcopal see seems to have been a means by which Fergus sought to reinforce his independence from the Scots, his remarkable support of reformed religious orders may have been a way in which he attempted to legitimise his regal aspirations.[138]

Malcolm IV, King of Scotland as he is depicted in a mid-twelfth-century royal charter

There is evidence to suggest that Fergus struggled to maintain control of his lordship during the decade. Such a crisis could well have kept him from intervening in the Isles on Guðrøðr's behalf. As with the latter, the failure of Muirchertach's mercenary fleet could have contributed to a loss of Fergus's own authority.[174] Disarray in the lordship is evidenced by Vita Ailredi, which reveals that the region was wracked by inter-dynastic strife during this period.[180]

In 1160, Malcolm returned to Scotland having spent months campaigning in the service of the English on the Continent. After successfully dealing with a considerable number of disaffected magnates at Perth,[181] the Chronicle of Holyrood and the twelfth- to thirteenth-century Chronicle of Melrose reveal that he launched three military expeditions into Galloway.[182] The circumstances surrounding these invasions is unclear,[183] although what is clear is that Fergus submitted to the Scots before the end of the year.[184][note 10] Specifically, according to Gesta Annalia I, once the Scots subdued the Gallovidians, the conquerors forced Fergus to retire to the abbey of Holyrood, and hand over his son, Uhtred, as a royal hostage.[186] The Chronicle of Holyrood[187] and the fifteenth-century Ordinale of Holyrood corroborate Fergus's monastic retirement,[188] with the former source further recording Fergus's grant of the lands of Dunrod to the abbey.[187][note 11]

Seal of Richard de Morville, Constable of Scotland.[190] The Morvilles were one of numerous knightly families used by the Scottish Crown to encircle Fergus's lordship.[191][note 12]

On one hand, it is possible that Fergus himself had precipitated Malcolm's reaction by raiding into the territory between the rivers Urr and Nith.[193] The fact that the Chronicle of Holyrood describes Malcolm's Gallovidian opponents as "federate enemies", and makes no mention of his sons, suggests that Fergus was supported by other accomplices.[194] In fact, it is possible that Malcolm had encountered an alliance between Fergus and Somairle.[195] Evidence of such a coalition may exist in the dating clause of a royal charter that notes a formal agreement between Somairle and Malcolm that Christmas.[196] Additionally, the fact that several churches near Kirkcudbright are recorded to have once belonged to Iona, an ancient ecclesiastical centre that Somairle attempted to revive during his reign in the Isles, could suggest some sort of concord between the rulers.[197] If Somairle and Fergus had indeed been allies, the fall of the latter, coupled with the further advancement of Scottish authority into the Solway region, may have finally brought Somairle to terms with the Scots.[198] An alternate possibility is that the charter clause could be evidence that Somairle supported Malcolm in his suppression and destruction of Fergus.[21] There is also reason to suspect that Ferteth, Earl of Strathearn possessed some sort of affiliation with Fergus.[199] Not only does Ferteth appear to be the most prominent of the disaffected magnates who confronted Malcolm in 1160,[200] but his father is recorded to have taken a leading part in the Battle of the Standard,[201] and Ferteth himself was married to a woman whose name may be evidence that she was a native of Galloway.[199][note 13] The kin-strife noted by Vita Ailredi could be evidence that Fergus's sons assisted in his overthrow, or at least did little to arrest it.[203]

The remains of Motte of Urr, the earthen remains of a twelfth-century motte-and-bailey castle. The motte may have been the site of a castle of Walter de Berkeley, Chamberlain of Scotland, an Anglo-Norman settled in Galloway by Uhtred in the 1160s.[204]

Fergus did not live long after retiring, and died on 12 May 1161, as evidenced by the Chronicle of Holyrood.[205] Surviving sources reveal that he overshadowed his sons during his lifetime, with Uhtred witnessing only three charters and Gilla Brigte none at all. The latter's apparent exclusion from affairs of state could be relevant to the subsequent animosity between the siblings, as well as the difficulties Fergus faced with the men late in his career.[206] Upon Fergus's death, the lordship appears to have been split between the brothers. Although there is no specific evidence for Gilla Brigte's share, later transactions involving Uhtred reveal that the latter held lands in the lower Dee valley, seemingly centred in an area around Kirkcudbright. The fact that this region appears to have formed the core of Fergus's holdings could be evidence that Uhtred was the senior successor. Conceivably, Uhtred's allotment consisted of the lordship's territory east of the river Cree, whilst Gilla Brigte's share was everything east of this waterway.[207]

Charter of David to Robert de Brus concerning Annandale.[208] The settlement of such men in southern Scotland may have been a means of countering the rise of Fergus.

In the wake of Malcolm's destruction of Fergus, the Scottish Crown moved to further incorporate Galloway into the Scottish realm. Uhtred appears to have been granted the territory between the rivers Nith and Urr,[209] whilst Gilla Brigte may have been wed to a daughter or sister of Donnchad II, Earl of Fife, the kingdom's foremost Gaelic magnate.[210] Scottish authority penetrated into the lordship through the installation of royal officials,[211] and Scottish power was perhaps further projected into Galloway by a royal castle at Dumfries.[212] Surviving royal acta dating to after the fall of Fergus indicate that, from the perspective of the Scottish Crown, the Lordship of Galloway had been integrated into the Kingdom of Scotland, and was subject to the overlordship of Malcolm himself.[213]

• "Fergus, Lord of Galloway (d.1161)". People of Medieval Scotland, 1093–1371.