Automobile drag coefficient

The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile measures the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air. When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the other performance characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed; therefore it becomes critically important at higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and fuel efficiency.[1] There are many different ways to reduce the drag of a vehicle. A common way to measure the drag of the vehicle is through the drag area.

Edmund Rumpler's 1921 Tropfenwagen was the first series-produced aerodynamically designed automobile, before the Chrysler Airflow and the Tatra 77.

Reducing drag

The reduction of drag in road vehicles has led to increases in the top speed of the vehicle and the vehicle's fuel efficiency, as well as many other performance characteristics, such as handling and acceleration.[2] The two main factors that impact drag are the frontal area of the vehicle and the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient is a unit-less value that denotes how much an object resists movement through a fluid such as water or air. A potential complication of altering a vehicle's aerodynamics is that it may cause the vehicle to get too much lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the airflow around the body of the vehicle. Too much lift can cause the vehicle to lose road traction which can be very unsafe.[3] Lowering the drag coefficient comes from streamlining the exterior body of the vehicle. Streamlining the body requires assumptions about the surrounding airspeed and characteristic use of the vehicle.

Deletion

The deletion of parts on a vehicle is an easy way for designers and vehicle owners to reduce parasitic and frontal drag of the vehicle with little cost and effort. Deletion can be as simple as removing an aftermarket part, or part that has been installed on the vehicle after production, or having to modify and remove an OEM part, meaning any part of the vehicle that was originally manufactured on the vehicle. Most production sports cars and high efficiency vehicles come standard with many of these deletions in order to be competitive in the automotive and race market, while others choose to keep these drag-increasing aspects of the vehicle for their visual aspects, or to fit the typical uses of their customer base.[4]

Roof rack

A roof rack is a common trait on many SUV and station wagon vehicles. While roof racks are very useful in carrying extra storage on a vehicle, they also increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the drag coefficient. This is because the air flows over the top of the vehicle, following the smooth lines of the hood and windshield, then collides with the roof rack and causes turbulence. The removal of this part has led to increases in fuel efficiency in several studies.[5]

Mud flaps

Mudflaps are now rarely specified as standard on production cars as they interfere with the clean airflow around the vehicle. For larger vehicles such as trucks, mud flaps are still important for their control of spray, and in 2001 a new version of the mud flap was introduced that has been shown to create significantly less aerodynamic drag than standard mud flaps.[6][7][8]

Rear spoiler

A rear spoiler usually comes standard in most sports vehicles and resembles the shape of a raised wing in the rear of the vehicle. The main purpose of a rear spoiler in a vehicle's design is to counteract lift, thereby increasing stability at higher speeds. In order to achieve the lowest possible drag, air must flow around the streamlined body of the vehicle without coming into contact with any areas of possible turbulence. A rear spoiler design that stands off the rear deck lid will increase downforce, reducing lift at high speeds while incurring a drag penalty. Flat spoilers, possibly angled slightly downward may reduce turbulence and thereby reduce the coefficient of drag.[9] Some cars now feature automatically adjustable rear spoilers, so at lower speed the effect on drag is reduced when the benefits of reduced lift are not required.

Side mirrors

Side mirrors both increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the coefficient of drag since they protrude from the side of the vehicle.[10][11] In order to decrease the impact that side mirrors have on the drag of the vehicle the side mirrors can be replaced with smaller mirrors or mirrors with a different shape. Several concept cars of the 2010s are replacing mirrors with tiny cameras[12] but this option is not common for production cars because most countries require side mirrors. One of the first production passenger automobiles to swap out mirrors for cameras was the Honda e, and in this case the cameras are claimed by Honda to have decreased aerodynamic drag by "around 90% compared to conventional door mirrors" which contributed to an approximately 3.8% reduction in drag for the entire vehicle.[13] It is estimated that two side mirrors are responsible for 2 to 7% of the total aerodynamic drag of a motor vehicle, and that removing them could improve fuel economy by 1.5–2 miles per US gallon.[14]

Radio antenna

While they do not have the biggest impact on the drag coefficient due to their small size, radio antennas commonly found protruding from the front of the vehicle can be relocated and changed in design to rid the car of this added drag. The most common replacement for the standard car antenna is the shark fin antenna found in most high efficiency vehicles.[15]

Windshield wipers

The effect that windshield wipers have on a vehicle's airflow varies between vehicles; however, they are often omitted from race vehicles and high efficiency concepts in order to maintain the smallest possible coefficient of drag. A much more common option is to replace the windshield wipers with lower profile wipers, or to only remove the windshield wiper on the passenger side of the vehicle, and even to fabricate a deflector to deflect the air up and over the wipers.[16]

Another alternative is to equip the vehicle with a single wiper placed in the centre of the windshield, allowing it to cover both sides of the windshield. This mitigates the amount of drag by decreasing the frontal area of the blade. While such application may be useful for racing, for most road vehicles this would produce minimal improvement in overall drag reduction.

Fabrication

The application of new parts and concepts onto the vehicle design are easier to include when in the design stage of a vehicle, rather than in aftermarket (automotive) parts, however, the fabrication of these parts assists in the streamlining of the vehicle and can help greatly reduce the drag of the vehicle. Most vehicles with very low drag coefficients, such as race cars and high efficiency concept cars, apply these ideas to their design.[17]

Wheel covers
Alloy wheels with covers on a Tesla Model 3

When air flows around the wheel wells it gets disturbed by the rims of the vehicles and forms an area of turbulence around the wheel. In order for the air to flow more smoothly around the wheel well, smooth wheel covers are often applied. Smooth wheel covers are hub caps with no holes in them for air to pass through. This design reduces drag; however, it may cause the brakes to heat up more quickly because the covers prevent airflow around the brake system. As a result, this modification is more commonly seen in high efficiency vehicles rather than sports cars or racing vehicles.[18]

Air curtains
2017 Land Rover Discovery with front air curtains

Air curtains divert air flow from slots in the body and guide it towards the outside edges of the wheel wells.[19][20][21]

Partial grille block

The front grille of a vehicle is used to direct air through the radiator. In a streamlined design the air flows around the vehicle rather than through; however, the grille of a vehicle redirects airflow from around the vehicle to through the vehicle, which then increases the drag. In order to reduce this impact a grille block is often used. A grille block covers up a portion of, or the entirety of, the front grille of a vehicle. In most high efficiency models or in vehicles with low drag coefficients, a very small grille will already be built into the vehicle's design, eliminating the need for a grille block. The grille in most production vehicles is generally designed to maximize air flow through the radiator where it exits into the engine compartment. This design can actually create too much airflow into the engine compartment, preventing it from warming up in a timely manner, and in such cases a grille block is used to increase engine performance and reduce vehicle drag simultaneously.[22]

Under tray

The underside of a vehicle often traps air in various places and adds turbulence around the vehicle. In most racing vehicles this is eliminated by covering the entire underside of the vehicle in what is called an under tray. This tray prevents any air from becoming trapped under the vehicle and reduces drag.[18]

Fender skirts

Fender skirts are often made as extensions of the body panels of the vehicles and cover the entire wheel wells. Much like smooth wheel covers this modification reduces the drag of the vehicle by preventing any air from becoming trapped in the wheel well and assists in streamlining the body of the vehicle. Fender skirts are more commonly found on the rear wheel wells of a vehicle because the tires do not turn and the design is much simpler. This is commonly seen in vehicles such as the first generation Honda Insight. Front fender skirts have the same effect on reducing drag as the rear wheel skirts, but must be further offset from the body in order to compensate for the tire sticking out from the body of the vehicle as turns are made.[18]

Modified front bumper

The front bumper is the first part of the vehicle that the air must flow around. Therefore, it plays a crucial role in reducing drag. A front air dam is often used which extends from the very front of the vehicle down to the lowest part of the vehicle. This is done to direct airflow around and over the vehicle rather than allowing air to travel under it. Contoured deflectors, or tire spats, are often made as part of the front bumper in order to direct airflow around the tire without having any increase to the outward flow.

Boattails and Kammbacks

A boattail can greatly reduce a vehicle's total drag. Boattails create a teardrop shape that will give the vehicle a more streamlined profile, reducing the occurrence of drag inducing flow separation.[23] A kammback is a truncated boattail. It is created as an extension of the rear of the vehicle, moving the rear backward at a slight angle toward the bumper of the car. This can reduce drag as well but a boattail would reduce the vehicle's drag more. Nonetheless, for practical and style reasons, a kammback is more commonly seen in racing, high efficiency vehicles, and trucking.[24]

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.

The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented[25] and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.

Production cars
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.7 to 1.1typical values for a Formula One car (downforce settings change for each circuit)
0.74Legends car
0.7Caterham Seven
0.65 to 0.75Lotus Seven1957–1972
0.6 +a typical truck
0.59[26]Land Rover Defender2008
0.57Hummer H22003
0.54Mercedes Benz G-Class
0.51Volkswagen Westfalia Camper1980-1991
0.51Citroën 2CV1948
0.48Rover Mini1998
0.48Volkswagen Beetle (original design)[27][28]1938
0.48Volkswagen Cabriolet (Rabbit Convertible)[29]1979–1993
0.47Lancia Aprilia[30]1937
0.46Ford Mustang (coupe)1979
0.46Lincoln Town Car (sedan)1985-1989[31]
0.454[32]Jeep Wrangler (JL)2018
0.45Dodge Viper RT/101996
0.45Mercury Grand Marquis (sedan)1988-1991[33]
0.45Range Rover Classic1990
0.45Volkswagen Gol G11980
0.44Volkswagen Vanagon1980-1991
0.44Ford Mustang (fastback)1979
0.44Peugeot 3051978
0.44Peugeot 5041968
0.44Toyota Truck1990
0.43TVR 3000S1978-79
0.425Duple 425 coach
(named for its low Cd by coach standards)		1985
0.42Lamborghini Countach1974
0.42Plymouth Duster1994
0.42Triumph Spitfire Mk IV1971
0.41Smart Roadster2003
0.41Volvo 740 (sedan)1982
0.405Subaru Forester1997-2002[34]
0.40Chevrolet Astro1995-2005[35]
0.40Mercury Cougar1983-1986
0.40Ariel Atom2002[36]
0.40Ford Escape Hybrid2005
0.40Nissan Skyline GT-R R321989
0.40Jaguar XJS1976-1996
0.40 Ford Ranger 2011-2015 [37]
0.39Chevrolet Tahoe2006
0.39MG ZR2001
0.39Dodge Durango2004
0.39Ford Aerostar1995[38]
0.39Ford Escort 5 Door1981-1984[39]
0.39Honda Odyssey1994-98
0.39[40]Toyota Tacoma (N300)2016
0.39Triumph Spitfire1964
0.385Nissan 280ZX1978
0.38Fiat Ritmo1978
0.38Ford Territory2011
0.38Lexus GX2003
0.38Lincoln Mark VII1984-1992[41]
0.38Mazda Miata1989
0.38Fiat 5001957
0.38Smart Roadster Coupé2003
0.38Subaru Forester2009-2013[42]
0.38VW NewBeetle[43]
without wing or spoiler 0.39[44]		2003
0.374Ford Capri Mk III1978
0.372Ferrari F501996
0.37Ford Escort Mk.III (Europe)1980
0.37BMW Z3 M coupe1999
0.37Jaguar XJ (X300/X308)1994-2003
0.37Mercury Grand Marquis1998-2002[45]
0.37Mercury Grand Marquis2003-2011[46]
0.37Renault Twingo I
0.37Volkswagen Tiguan2008
0.37Volkswagen Transporter T41990-2004[47]
0.36Alfa Romeo 331983
0.36Cadillac Escalade hybrid2008
0.36Cadillac Fleetwood1996
0.36Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd)1974
0.36Citroën DS1955
0.36Chrysler Sebring1996
0.36Ferrari Testarossa1986
0.36Ford Escort1997-2002[47]
0.36Ford Focus 3-door2000-2004
0.36Ford Mustang1999
0.36Honda Civic2001–2005
0.36Lincoln Town Car1990-1997[48]
0.36Mercury Cougar1987-1988
0.36Mercury Grand Marquis1992-1997[33]
0.36Mitsubishi Magna, V3000 sedan1985-1991
0.36 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution IX 2006
0.36Subaru Impreza WRX[49]2010
0.36Saturn SW1996-2001[47]
0.36, 0.244 (1:5)Tatra 871936-1950[50]
0.36Toyota Celica Convertible1994-1999[51]
0.36Volkswagen Jetta1985-1992[52]
0.36Tatra 77 & Tatra 77A1934-1936[53]
0.357Ram 1500 Quad Cab 4x22018[54]
0.355NSU Ro 801967
0.355Ford Focus RS2016
0.35Maserati Quattroporte V2003
0.35Aleko 21411986-2002
0.35Aston Martin Vanquish2004
0.35BMW M3 Convertible2005
0.35BMW Z4 M coupe2006
0.35DeltaWing[55] (endurance racing car)2012
0.35Dodge Viper GTS1996
0.35Ford Thunderbird1983-1988
0.35Ford Windstar1995-1998[56]
0.35Ford Windstar1999-2003[57]
0.35Honda Del Sol1992–1997[47]
0.35Jaguar XKR2005
0.35Lexus GX2010
0.35Lexus RX2003–2009
0.35MINI Cooper2008
0.35Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X2008
0.35Nissan Cube2009
0.35Renault Clio (Mk 2)2002[58]
0.35SSC Ultimate Aero2007–2013
0.35Tesla Roadster[59]2008
0.35Mitsubishi i-MiEV2011
0.35Smart ForTwo[60]2008-
0.35Toyota MR-21998
0.35Toyota Previa1991-1997[61][62]
0.35Toyota Sequoia2007
0.35Volvo 940 (sedan)1990
0.348Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2)1982[63]
0.347Hyundai Tiburon (RD1)1997
0.342Toyota Celica (Liftback Model)1982
0.34Alfa Romeo Giulia sedan1968-1972
0.34Aston Martin DB92004
0.34 Audi TT MK1 (8N) 1998-2005[64]
0.34Chevrolet Caprice1994
0.34Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z062006–2013
0.34Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid2008
0.34Ferrari 360 Modena1999
0.34Ferrari F401987
0.34Ferrari F430 F12004
0.34Fiat Uno1984-1989
0.34Ford Puma1997
0.34Ford Sierra1982
0.34Geo Metro (Hatchback)1995-1997[47]
0.34Volkswagen Gol G21994
0.34Honda Prelude1988
0.34Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down)2001
0.34 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X 2014
0.34Nissan Altima1993-1997[65]
0.34Nissan Skyline R34 GT-R1999-2002[66]
0.34Peugeot 1061991
0.34Saab 900 NG2003[67]
0.34Saab 90001984-1998[67]
0.34Saturn SL21991-1995[68]
0.34Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door)2009[69]
0.34Subaru Legacy Wagon1993-1999[70]
0.34Toyota Corolla (Wagon)1993-1997[71]
0.34Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing)1989–1990
0.339Citroen SM1970-1975[72]
0.338Chevrolet Camaro1995
0.334 Seat Leon FR2005-2011
0.33Acura Integra1993-2001[73]
0.33Acura RSX2002-2006[74]
0.33Alfa Romeo Giulia (saloon)1962[75]
0.33Audi A32006
0.33BMW E30 M31986–1992
0.33Chevrolet Caprice (sedan)1991-1996
0.33[76]Chevrolet Impala2006
0.33Dodge Charger2006
0.33Ford Crown Victoria1992
0.33Ford Escort ZX21998-2003[77]
0.33Ford Fusion2010[78]
0.33Holden Commodore (VT) sedan1997
0.33Honda Accord Sedan2002
0.33Honda Civic Hatchback1988-1991[47]
0.33 Honda S2000 2000-2009[79]
0.33 to 0.37Koenigsegg Agera R2013
0.33Lamborghini Murciélago2001
0.33Lexus RX2010
0.33Mazda RX-7 FC3C1987
0.33Nissan 200SX Coupe1995-1998[80]
0.33Peugeot 2061998
0.33Dodge Durango
(without roof-rack), ("HEAT" model, 0.325)		2011–present
0.33Peugeot 3091986
0.33Renault Modus2004
0.33Saab 9-3 SC2003[67]
0.33Saturn SL21999[81]
0.33Subaru Impreza WRX STi2004
0.33Subaru Forester2014-2018
0.33[82] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1991
0.33Toyota Corolla (E100)1993-1997[47]
0.33Toyota Supra (without wing)1989–1990
0.329Chevrolet Corsica1989-2006[83]
0.325Opel Astra J2009
0.324Cobalt SS Supercharged2005
0.321Toyota Matrix2003-2008[84]
0.32Mitsubishi RVR2010[85]
0.32Buick Riviera1995
0.32BMW M3 Coupe2005
0.32[86]Daewoo Espero1990
0.32Dodge Avenger1995
0.32Ferrari California2008
0.32Chrysler 300C2011-2014
0.32Fiat Croma1985-1996
0.32Ford Taurus1992-1995[87]
0.32Geo Metro (Sedan)1995-1997[47]
0.32Seat Leon2005-2011
0.32Honda Accord (Coupe)2002
0.32Honda Ascot Innova (Sedan)1992-1996
0.32Honda Civic (Coupe)1992-1995[47]
0.32Honda Civic (Hatchback DX)1996-2000[88]
0.32Honda Civic (Sedan EX)1996-2000[89]
0.32Honda NSX1990
0.32Hyundai Veloster2012
0.32Jaguar XJ (X350)2006
0.32Koenigsegg CCX2006
0.32Mazdaspeed32007
0.32McLaren F11992
0.32Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-161983-1990
0.32Nissan 240SX Coupe1995-1998[90]
0.32Nissan 300ZX1989
0.32Nissan Altima1998-2001[91]
0.32Nissan Maxima1997
0.32Oldsmobile Aurora1995-1999
0.32Porsche 997 GT22008–2013
0.32Peugeot 4061995
0.32Peugeot 8061994
0.32Saab Sonett II1966-1969[67]
0.32Scion xB2008
0.32Suzuki Swift1991
0.32Tatra 6001948-1952[92]
0.32Toyota Celica1994
0.32Toyota Celica2000-2005[93]
0.32Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models)1993
0.32Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing)1987–1988
0.32Toyota Tercel Sedan1995-2000[94]
0.32[95]Toyota Corolla Hatchback (E210, US)2019
0.32Volkswagen Golf Mk31991
0.32Volkswagen GTI Mk V2006
0.32Volvo V502004
Production cars (continued)
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.315Saturn SL11996-1999[96]
0.31Alfa Romeo 1561997–2007
0.31Audi A4 B51995
0.31Audi A52011–2016
0.31Audi A32014
0.31BMW 7 Series2009
0.31Buick Park Avenue1996
0.31Cadillac CTS2004
0.31Cadillac CTS-V2005
0.31Citroën AX1986
0.31Citroën GS1970
0.31Eagle Vision1995
0.31Ford Focus sedan2000-2004
0.31Fiat Coupé1995[97]
0.31Fiat Tipo1988-1995
0.31Ford Falcon1995
0.31Ford Thunderbird1989-1997[98]
0.31Holden Commodore1998
0.31Honda Civic (Hatchback)1992-1995[47]
0.31Honda Civic (Sedan)2006
0.31Infiniti G37 (Coupe)2008–2015[99]
0.31Kia Rio (Sedan)2001[100]
0.31Lamborghini Diablo1990
0.31Lexus LFA (wing retracted)2010
0.31Mazda MX-31990–1996
0.31Mazda MX-61992–1997
0.31Mazda RX-7 FC3S1986
0.31Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)1993
0.31Mazda RX-82004
0.31 Mazda2 (Hatchback) 2010-2014[101]
0.31Mazda3 (Hatchback)2010-2013
0.31Nissan Tiida / Versa2004
0.31Opel Tigra1994-2000
0.31Pagani Huayra2012[102]
0.31Peugeot 3072001
0.31Peugeot 4051987
0.31Porsche 997 Turbo/GT32006
0.31Renault 251984
0.31Saab Sonett III1970-1974[67]
0.31Saab 9-3 Viggen2003[67]
0.31Saab 9-5 Wagon (2000-2010)2003[67]
0.31Saturn SC22001
0.31Scion xA2004
0.31Toyota Avalon1995–2000
0.31Toyota Corolla (E110)1998-2002[103]
0.31Toyota Corolla (E210, UK)2019[104]
0.31Toyota Paseo1995-1999[105]
0.31Toyota RAV42006
0.31Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing)1993
0.31Volkswagen GTI Mk IV1997
0.31Volkswagen Golf Mk62008-2012
0.31Volvo S40 2nd generation2003
0.308Chevrolet Bolt2016[106]
0.308Škoda Octavia RS2005
0.304Ford Probe1988-1992[107]
0.30 Lotus Elan+2[108] 1967-1974
0.30Alfa Romeo 1641988[109]
0.30Audi 100 1983
0.30[110] BMW 5 Series (E34) 1988
0.30BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 335i [111]2012
0.30[86]Citroën XM1989
0.30 Fiat Uno facelift 1989-2000
0.30Ford Taurus1996-1999[112][113]
0.30Ford Focus Wagon 2000-2004
0.30 Ford Focus ST2013–2018
0.30Honda Accord Sedan 2003, 2005–2007
0.30Honda CRX DX/Si[114]1988
0.30Honda NSX 2002
0.30Hyundai Sonata2006
0.30Koenigsegg CCX2006
0.30Mitsubishi Eclipse2000
0.30Nissan 180SX1989
0.30Nissan 300ZX 1983
0.30Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models 2003–2008
0.30Nissan 370Z Coupe
(0.29 with sport package)		2009[115]
0.30 Peugeot 207[116] 2006-2014
0.30Renault 19 16V1991
0.30Saab 921947[67]
0.30Seat Leon2012
0.30[82] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1996
0.30Toyota Corolla (E120)2003-2008[117]
0.30Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Hatchback)2019[118]
0.30Toyota Sienna2003–2009
0.30Volkswagen Bora mk41999–2005
0.30[lower-alpha 1]Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 [119]2013–2018
0.299Cadillac ATS2012 [120]
0.296[121]Chevrolet Impala (I4)2013
0.295Ford Focus Mk.III hatchback [122] (0.274 sedan)2011
0.291[123]Toyota Avalon2005
0.29Subaru Alcyone/XT Coupe1985-1989 [124]
0.29Alfa Romeo 1551992[125]
0.29Alfa Romeo MiTo2011[126]
0.29 [127]Audi A4 sedan2007
0.29BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 328i [111]2012
0.29[128][lower-alpha 2]BMW i32013
0.29[86]Chevrolet Corvette2005
0.29[129] Chevrolet Cruze sedan 2016
0.29Fiat Tipo2015[130]
0.29Ford Escape2010[131]
0.29Ford Focus C-Max2003[132]
0.29Honda Accord Coupe2003, 2005–2007[133]
0.29[134]Honda Accord Hybrid2005, 2007
0.29Honda CRX HF[114]1988
0.29Kia Niro Hybrid/EV Compact SUV2016[135]
0.29Lancia Dedra 1990
0.29 [136]Lexus LS 4001990
0.29[137]Mazda3 (sedan)2009
0.29Mercedes-Benz C-Class Sportscoupe2001
0.29Nissan Leaf2010 [138]
0.29Rover 751998 [139]
0.29Saab 9-5 (1998 – 2009)2003[67]
0.29[140][141]Toyota Corolla L/LE sedan (E170), (E210)2013 (E170), 2019 (E210)
0.29Toyota Platz2000-2005[142][143]
0.29[144]Toyota Prius2001
0.29[145]Toyota Yaris (hatchback & sedan)2006-2011
0.29[146]Volvo C701998
0.29[147] NIO ES8[148] 2017
0.29[149]Škoda Scala2019–present
0.288[150]Chrysler Concorde1998–2001
0.286[151]Perodua Bezza2016
0.286[152]Chevrolet Corvette C6 (coupe)2005–2013
0.285[129]Chevrolet Volt2016
0.285[153]Dodge Dart (PF)2012
0.285[154]Opel Astra K Hatchback2015
0.284[155]Volkswagen Passat CC2008–2017
0.281[156]Chevrolet Volt2010-2015
0.28Alfa Romeo Giulietta Sprint Speciale1959[157]
0.28[158]Audi A2 1.4 TDI2000
0.28[86]Citroën C42004
0.28[159]Fiat Croma Nuova2005-2011
0.28[160]Honda Civic Hybrid2003-2005
0.28[161]Honda Insight2009-2014
0.28[162]Hyundai Elantra2011
0.28[163]Hyundai Sonata
(0.25 for the Hybrid)		2011-2013
0.28[164][165]Lexus IS2006–present
0.28[166][167]Opel Omega (sedan)1986–1993
0.28Saab 9-3 SS2003[67]
0.28Škoda Fabia IV2021–present[168]
0.28[169]Rumpler Tropfenwagen1921-1925
0.28[170][171]Toyota Camry XV40, XV502006–2018
0.28Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Saloon)2019[118]
0.28Maserati Quattroporte VI2013[172]
0.28[173] NIO ES6[174] 2018
0.275Ford Fusion2013[175]
0.274 Peugeot 207 Economique[116] 2009
0.273[176]Ford Focus Mk IV hatchback, (0.25 sedan)2018
0.27[177] BMW 5 Series (E39) 1996
0.27[lower-alpha 3]BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d [111]2012
0.27[178]Hyundai Elantra2016
0.27[179]Hyundai Sonata2019
0.27Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback)[180]2008
0.27[181]Mercedes-Benz S Class
(0.268 with Sport Package)		1998–2005
0.27Subaru BRZ and Toyota 862012[182]
0.27[183] Toyota Avalon (XX50) 2018
0.27[184][lower-alpha 4] Toyota Prius (XW60) LE 2023
0.27[185]Volkswagen Jetta Mk72018
0.263[186] NIO ES7[187] 2022
0.26[lower-alpha 3] BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d EfficientDynamics [111]2012
0.26BMW 3 Series (E90) (0.26-0.30)2009[188]
0.26BMW i82015[189]
0.26[190] Infiniti Q70 Hybrid / Nissan Fuga Hybrid
(0.27 for ICE version)		2015
0.26Jaguar XE[191]2014
0.26Mazda3 (Sedan)2012[192]
0.26[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupe[193]2015–2018
0.26[194]Nissan Altima (6th gen.)2018
0.26[195]Nissan Sylphy (B18)2019
0.26Opel Calibra 8-valve[196]1989
0.26[lower-alpha 3][197]Audi e-tron Sportback2020
0.26[198] NIO EC6[199] 2020
0.25[200]BMW iX2020
0.25 (Manufacturer claim. Independent test measured 0.26.)[201] Toyota Prius[202] 2009-2015
0.25 Honda Insight[203] 1999-2006
0.25 (w/air suspension)
0.26 (non-air suspension)		Lexus LS430[204]2001-2006
0.250[205] Nio ES6[206] 2023
0.250[207] NIO ES8[208] 2023
0.249[209]Škoda Octavia MkIV liftback2020
0.24Tesla Model X[210]2018
0.24[211]Hyundai Ioniq2016–2022
0.24[212]Kia Optima Hybrid2016
0.24[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz S 350 BlueTec[213]2013
0.24[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz C 220 BlueTec BlueEfficiency Sedan[214]2014–2016
0.24Tesla Model S[215]2012
0.24Toyota Prius[216]2016
0.24–0.30[lower-alpha 3][217] BMW i4 eDrive40 2021
0.236 Xpeng P7[218] 2020
0.23[219][lower-alpha 3]Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)2015
0.23[220][lower-alpha 3]Alfa Romeo Giulia Advanced Efficiency2016
0.23[221][lower-alpha 3]BMW 320d (G20)2018
0.23[222]Tesla Model 32017
0.230[223] NIO EC7[224] 2023
0.22[225][lower-alpha 5]Porsche Taycan Turbo2019
0.22[226][lower-alpha 3]BMW 5 series (G30) 520d EfficientDynamics2017
0.22[227][lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency Sedan2013
0.212 (1:5 model test, 1:1 car = 0.36, see above)[228][229][230]Tatra T77A1935[231]

[232] [233] [234]

0.208[235][236]NIO ET7[237]2021
0.208[238] Tesla Model S[239] 2021
0.20[240][lower-alpha 6]Mercedes-Benz EQS2021
0.197[241][lower-alpha 7]Lucid Air2022
0.19[242]General Motors EV11996
0.19[243]Volkswagen XL12013
0.175[244] Lightyear 0[245] 2022
Concept/experimental cars
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.29FSM Beskid Polish hatchback prototype1983
0.27Avion[246]1986
0.26Alfa Romeo Disco Volante1952
0.25BMW Kamm-Coupé1938 [247]
0.25Dymaxion Car1933
0.25SmILE (an experimental car)1996
0.23Volvo ECC1992 [248]
0.23Pininfarina X (Morelli shape)1960[249]
0.22BMW Vision EfficientDynamics Concept2009
0.22Citroën ECO 2000 Concept1981[250]
0.22Aurel Persu Streamliner1923[251]
0.20Opel Eco-Speedster2002[252]
0.20Loremo Concept2006
0.19Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept1954[253]
0.19Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept1995
0.19General Motors Ultralite1992
0.19Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept[254](based on the boxfish)2005
0.170Chrysler Ghia Dart1955[255]
0.170Mercedes-Benz Vision EQXX2022 (Cd figure measured in the Daimler aero-acoustic wind tunnel at a wind speed of 140 km/h) [256]
0.168Daihatsu UFE-III Concept2005[257]
0.16General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats)[258]2000
0.16Edison2 Very Light Car, Automotive X Prize winner[259]2010
0.159Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept2002
0.157Li-ion Motors Wave II, Automotive X Prize winner[260]2010
0.15Schlörwagen[261]1939
0.15Aptera 2 Series 2e Prototype2011
0.15Keris RV Nakoela Team (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2015
0.149-0.150Urbee 2[262]2013
0.147JCB Dieselmax land speed record holder2006
0.14Fiat Turbina Concept[263]1954
0.137Ford Probe V Concept1985
0.13Aptera Sol Prototype2021 [264]
0.125Sunraycer, solar race car1987
0.12Reflex 1000, solar cycle1996[265]
0.12Panhard CD LM641964
0.117Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car1965
0.116 TUT Sunchaser 4[266] 2022
0.095 Sunswift 7[267] 2022
0.08Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept2007
0.072Alérion Supermileage (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2013
0.07Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner2001–2007
0.0512Ecorunner V (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2015[268]
0.048 Ecorunner VI (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2016
0.045 Ecorunner 8 (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2018

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area – drag area – is represented as CdA (or CxA), a multiplication of Cd value by area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

The force F required to overcome drag is calculated with the drag equation: Therefore: Where the drag coefficient and reference area have been collapsed into the drag area term. This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison. As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. This relation also allows an estimation of the new top speed of a car with a tuned engine:

Or the power required for a target top speed:

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8 sq ft (0.74 m2). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m2) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m2). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m2).[269]

Automobile examples of CdA[270]
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
5.2 sq ft 0.48 m22019 Mercedes-Benz A 180 d (V177)[271][lower-alpha 3]
5.3 sq ft 0.49 m22013 Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency[272][lower-alpha 3]
5.4 sq ft 0.50 m21989 Opel Calibra (8 valve)
5.5 sq ft 0.51 m22015 Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)[219][lower-alpha 3]
5.52 sq ft 0.513 m22019 Porsche Taycan Turbo[225]
5.6 sq ft 0.52 m22017 BMW 520d EfficientDynamics [273][lower-alpha 3]
5.6 sq ft 0.52 m21993 Mazda RX-7 FD (base model) [274]
5.70 sq ft 0.530 m21985 Subaru Alcyone/XT/Vortex
5.71 sq ft 0.530 m21990 Honda CR-X Si
5.74 sq ft 0.533 m22002 Acura NSX
5.76 sq ft 0.535 m21968 Toyota 2000GT
5.80 sq ft 0.539 m21986 Toyota MR2
5.81 sq ft 0.540 m21989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX
5.86 sq ft 0.544 m22001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L
5.88 sq ft 0.546 m21990 Nissan 240SX / 200SX / 180SX
5.90 sq ft 0.548 m21992 Mazda Xedos 6[275]
5.90 sq ft 0.548 m22015 BMW i8[189]
5.92 sq ft 0.550 m21994 Porsche 911 Speedster
5.95 sq ft 0.553 m21990 Mazda RX7
5.96 sq ft 0.554 m21993 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)[274]
6.0 sq ft 0.56 m22001 Honda Insight[201]
6.00 sq ft 0.557 m21992 Subaru SVX
6.00 sq ft 0.557 m21970 Lamborghini Miura
6.05 sq ft 0.562 m22012 Tesla Model S P85[201]
6.08 sq ft 0.565 m22008 Nissan GTR
6.08 sq ft 0.565 m21989 Geo Metro[47]
6.13 sq ft 0.569 m21991 Acura NSX
6.17 sq ft 0.573 m21995 Lamborghini Diablo
6.19 sq ft 0.575 m21981 Citroën GSA X3 [72]
6.20 sq ft 0.576 m22014 Toyota Prius[201]
6.24 sq ft 0.580 m22004 Toyota Prius
6.27 sq ft 0.583 m21986 Porsche 911 Carrera
6.27 sq ft 0.583 m21992 Chevrolet Corvette
6.35 sq ft 0.590 m21999 Lotus Elise
6.37 sq ft 0.592 m22000 Vauxhall VX220 N/A
6.40 sq ft 0.595 m21990 Lotus Esprit
6.41 sq ft 0.596 m22003 Smart Roadster Coupé
6.54 sq ft 0.608 m21991 Saturn Sports Coupe
6.57 sq ft 0.610 m21985 Chevrolet Corvette
6.63 sq ft 0.616 m22001 Audi A2
6.66 sq ft 0.619 m21996 Citroën Saxo
6.70 sq ft 0.622 m22014 Chevrolet Volt[201]
6.77 sq ft 0.629 m21995 BMW M3
6.79 sq ft 0.631 m21993 Toyota Corolla DX
6.80 sq ft 0.632 m22007 BMW 335i Coupe
6.81 sq ft 0.633 m21991 Subaru Legacy
6.89 sq ft 0.640 m2[276]2019 Renault Clio V
6.90 sq ft 0.641 m21993 Saturn Wagon
6.93 sq ft 0.644 m21982 DMC DeLorean
6.94 sq ft 0.645 m22003 Smart Roadster
6.96 sq ft 0.647 m21988 Porsche 944 S
7.00 sq ft 0.650 m22013 Mercedes-Benz CLA250[201]
7.02 sq ft 0.652 m21992 BMW 325I
7.04 sq ft 0.654 m21991 Honda Civic EX
7.06 sq ft 0.656 m22004 Vauxhall VX220 Turbo
7.10 sq ft 0.660 m21995 Saab 900
7.11 sq ft 0.661 m21991 Ford Thunderbird LX
7.13 sq ft 0.662 m21970 Citroën SM[72]
7.14 sq ft 0.663 m21995 Subaru Legacy L
7.20 sq ft 0.669 m21995 Nissan Maxima GLE
7.34 sq ft 0.682 m22001 Honda Civic
7.39 sq ft 0.687 m21994 Honda Accord EX
7.4 sq ft 0.69 m22018 BMW X1 sDrive18i [277][lower-alpha 3]
7.48 sq ft 0.695 m21993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28
7.57 sq ft 0.703 m21992 Toyota Camry
7.63 sq ft 0.709 m21974 Citroën CX[72]
7.69 sq ft 0.714 m21994 Chrysler LHS
7.72 sq ft 0.717 m21993 Subaru Impreza
7.80 sq ft 0.725 m22012 Nissan Leaf SL[201]
8.02 sq ft 0.745 m22005 Bugatti Veyron
8.1 sq ft 0.75 m22016 Renault Zoe[278]
8.70 sq ft 0.808 m21990 Volvo 740 Turbo
8.70 sq ft 0.808 m21992 Ford Crown Victoria
8.71 sq ft 0.809 m21991 Buick LeSabre Limited
8.79 sq ft 0.817 m21956 Citroën DS Spécial [72]
9.54 sq ft 0.886 m21992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon
9.6 sq ft 0.89 m22010 Chrysler PT Cruiser
9.95 sq ft 0.924 m22016 Chrysler Pacifica[279]
10.7 sq ft 0.99 m21992 Chevrolet Blazer
11.6 sq ft 1.08 m22005 Ford Escape Hybrid
11.7 sq ft 1.09 m21993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
12.2 sq ft 1.13 m21949 Nash Airflyte
13.0 sq ft 1.21 m22019 Ram 1500[280]
13.1 sq ft 1.22 m22021 Jeep Wagoneer (WS)[281]
16.8 sq ft 1.56 m22006 Hummer H3
17 sq ft 1.6 m22013 Mercedes-Benz G-Class[282]
17.4 sq ft 1.62 m21995 Land Rover Discovery
26.5 sq ft 2.46 m22003 Hummer H2
Limited production cars
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
3.00 sq ft 0.279 m22011 Volkswagen XL1
3.95 sq ft 0.367 m21996 GM EV1
Concept/experimental cars
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
0.21 sq ft 0.020 m2Pac-car II[283]
2.04 sq ft 0.190 m22011 Aptera 2 Series[284]
2.10 sq ft 0.195 m22013 Urbee 2[285]
2.50 sq ft 0.232 m21986 Twike[286]
2.54 sq ft 0.236 m22002 Opel Eco-Speedster [287]
2.69 sq ft 0.250 m22009 Loremo
2.78 sq ft 0.258 m22010 Edison2 Very Light Car[288]
3.27 sq ft 0.304 m21987 Renault VESTA II[289]
4.72 sq ft 0.439 m22014 Volkswagen XL Sport[290]
5.00 sq ft 0.465 m22005 Mercedes-Benz Bionic[291]

See also

Notes
  1. North American market
  2. 0.30 with range extender
  3. European market
  4. w/ 17-inch wheels
  5. in Range mode in combination with a low level and closed air intake flaps
  6. w/ 19-inch AMG wheel/tire combination in "Sport" driving mode
  7. w/ 19-inch wheel/tire combination

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