Gastronationalism

Food historian King differentiates between gastronationalism, or culinary nationalism, and national cuisine, saying that culinary nationalism "suggests a dynamic process of creation and contestation" while national cuisine "calls to mind a specific and static product".[2]^: 3

The Codex Alimentarius Commission is a project of the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization which creates advice regarding food handling, labeling, and ethical standards, including those around marketing a food as originating in a certain place.[1]^{: 122–124}

In some cases United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has made statements favoring one side or the other of such an argument, sometimes after being asked to name a food to a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list for a country, which has increased passions on either side.[4][1]^{: 147–157} In 1972 UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage or World Heritage Convention.[1]^: 147

In Europe, mandatory origin labeling is "one of the most prickly topics" in European Union (EU) policy discussions.[11] In December 2019 France, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain asked the EU to strengthen food origin labeling; Politico called the request a "bombshell", as it weakens the idea of a single market.[11] The Protected Geographical Status as of 2016 had been applied to over a thousand food items.[1]^: 14

Azerbaijan's National Culinary Centre, a non-governmental organization (NGO) publishes information discussing Azerbaijan’s national cuisine and accusing Armenian cuisine of imitating Azerbaijan.[4] The NGO's CEO said, "“Since 1989, the issue of Armenian pretentions towards Azerbaijan’s culinary traditions has been discussed at the highest level, by specialists and academics, many times. Every pan-Turkish, Islamic dish, including those from Azerbaijan, is claimed as Armenian – they are trying to prove that an Armenian culinary tradition exists."[4] Armenia's Society for the Preservation and Development of Armenian Culinary Traditions, an academic body, has discussed the Armenian culinary tradition.[4]

During the hummus wars, multiple corporations and business groups became involved as part of their marketing campaigns.[1]^{: 121–123}

Borscht is believed to have originated in Kievan Rus' and specifically in the area of modern-day Ukraine,[12] but according to historian Alison K. Smith, the dish's "Ukrainian origins have been largely obscured" as it became ubiquitous in Russian cuisine.[13]^{: 30, 33, 45–47}

The dish was described in Sergei Drukovtsov's Cooking Notes (1779),[13]^: 45 but is believed to have entered popular Russian cuisine from the popular 1939 Soviet cookbook Book of Tasty and Healthy Food that included dishes from various cuisines of the USSR. In 2019, the official Twitter account of Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation referred to borscht as "one of Russia’s most famous & beloved #dishes & a symbol of traditional cuisine" in one of their tweets, sparking outrage in Ukraine, where it was widely seen as an attempt at cultural appropriation.[14]

In response, Ukraine applied for the inclusion of borscht in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List[15][16] and launched a five-year culinary diplomacy strategy dubbed 'borscht diplomacy' where borscht plays a central role.[17]

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia’s Foreign Ministry's spokesperson Maria Zakharova said the fact that the Ukrainians "didn’t want to share borscht" was an example of alleged "xenophobia, Nazism, extremism in all forms" that led to the invasion.[18][19]

Taiwan has presented Taiwanese cuisine as the only remnant of traditional Chinese culture and cuisine, which the Nationalist Party argued had "been destroyed on the Chinese Mainland after the Communist takeover".[2]^: 56–72 On the other hand, some Taiwanese object to the politically fraught inclusion of Taiwanese cuisine under the banner of regional Chinese cuisine and argue that it is "inaccurate".[20]

In 2011, the Michelin Green Guide to Taiwan attributed the origins of minced pork rice to Shandong. This led to a fierce debate in Taiwan with many people insisting that minced pork rice originated in Taiwan,[21] while others viewed it as a Shandong dish that simply caught on in Taiwan.[22]

Shanghainese people have criticized the Taiwanese restaurant chain Din Tai Fung of misrepresenting the xiao long bao as a Taiwanese dish.[23]

In October 2020, a Japanese bakery c'est très fou launched the product "Taiwanese pineapple bun", which received criticism from Hong Kongers for suggesting the product originated in Taiwan.[24]

Dolma or tolma is claimed by both Armenia and Azerbaijan.[4] Armenia holds an annual tolma festival, always at a site that has historical significance in its conflicts with Azerbaijan.[4]

Until 1999, feta was used only by Greek producers. During the 1990s, Denmark and Germany challenged the labelling, arguing that the word 'feta' was Italian and that other EU countries shared climate and geography with parts of Greece and should be permitted to label their feta-style cheeses as Feta.[3][9] In 2002 the European Union granted the sole rights to use the name to Greece.[1]^: 122

Foie gras has been protected as a name and signifier of traditional identity by France; conflict is common with animal rights activists.[25]

Hainanese chicken rice is a dish that is often associated with Singapore, being one of its national dishes. During the 19th and 20th century, a significant amount of Hainanese people decided to move south, particularly to Singapore. Many also brought along their culinary expertise, creating numerous dishes that are a fusion of both their cuisine back in Hainan along with local ingredients available, or inventing a new dish entirely. It is often considered "one of the most beloved culinary exports of Singapore".[26][27]

The dish came into fruition around the 1920s by a Hainanese chef named Wang Yiyuan who was living in Singapore.[28] It then started to gain popularity in the mid 20th century by a chef named Moh Lee Twee, another Singaporean of Hainanese descent, whose Swee Kee Chicken Rice Restaurant operated at Middle Road for five decades.[29]

Nevertheless, this has been sporadically disputed by Malaysia, with no substantiated counter-claims. This dispute dates back to 1965, when the two countries split; specifically when Malaysia kicked Singapore out.[30][31] As the two countries were briefly formerly one, there are often disputing claims of its origin and accusations of national cuisines being misappropriated.[32][33][34][35]

Harissa is claimed by both Armenia and Turkey, where it is called keshkek.[4] Keshkek was recognized by UNESCO on its intangible cultural heritage list, which has caused passionate debate, with Armenians arguing that the dish's main ingredient, wheat, indicates it could not have been developed in Turkey, where the tradition was nomadic.[4][9]

Hummus is argued over by Israel, Palestine, and Lebanon.[36][9] The disagreement is sometimes referred to as the "hummus wars".[2]^: 3[1]^{: 121–123} The hummus wars also refers to the creation by Sabra, a US food company, of "the world's largest hummus plate" as a marketing event.[1]^{: 121–123} Israeli company Osem responded with a larger hummus plate, and soon was followed by a group of Lebanese chefs working with the Association of Lebanese Industrialists's campaign "Hands Off Our Dishes", which claimed hummus as Lebanese and objected to the marketing of the dish as Israeli.[1]^{: 121–123} Fadi Abboud, then president of ALI and later tourism minister for the country, threatened legal action against Israel for marketing hummus and other commercial food products as Israeli.[1]^{: 121–123} A series of record-breaking hummus plates followed from various middle eastern countries.[1]^{: 121–123} Abboud characterized the hummus wars as being not about just hummus but about "the organized theft carried out by Israel" in connection to the culture of the entire Arab region.[1]^{: 121–123}

West African countries typically have at least one variant form of jollof rice, with Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cameroon particularly competitive as to which country makes the best jollof.[37] In the mid-2010s this expanded into the "Jollof Wars".[38]

The rivalry is especially prominent between Nigeria and Ghana.[39][40][41] In 2016 Sister Deborah released "Ghana Jollof", which denigrated the Nigerian version and Nigerians for being proud of their version.[42] Soon after, a physical fight over insufficient jollof supplies at a Ghanaian political rally sparked delighted mockings of Ghanaians by Nigerians.[42]

Of particular sensitivity in jollof-making communities is the inclusion of non-traditional ingredients, which are defined country to country and are seen as making the jollof inauthentic.[42][37] In 2014 a recipe released by Jamie Oliver that included cherry tomatoes, coriander, lemon, and parsley, none of which are used in any traditional recipe, caused outraged reactions to the point Oliver's team had to issue a statement.[42]

Both South Korea and North Korea claim kimchi.[2]^: xii North Korea argues that South Korea's decreasing consumption (and increasing commercialization of production) is proof that the dish is more strongly associated with North Korea.[2]^: xii Traditional kimchi-making in South Korea in 2013 was given Intangible Cultural Heritage status by UNESCO[2]^: xii[1]^: 123 and in 2015 in North Korea.[43]

Japan also has interested itself in kimchi, arguing with South Korea over the Codex Alimentarius Commission's (CAC) international standardization of the dish, a disagreement often called the kimchi war.[2]^: 81–82[1]^: 123 Japan produced and exported an instant version of kimchi, which South Korea argued should not be called kimchi due to the lack of fermentation.[2]^: 81–82 During the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, Japan proposed making kimuchi, the Japanese name of the dish, an official food of the Olympics.[2]^: 81–82 In 2001 the CAC adopted an international standard which requires fermentation in order for a product to be exported as kimchi.[2]^: 81–82 China has also marketed kimchi; South Korea has called out as appropriation both the Japanese and Chinese marketing of the dish.[1]^: 123

Lavash is claimed by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey; the Armenians argue that lavash is traditionally prepared in a tonir, which indicates development in a non-nomadic society such as Armenia.[4] Accusations in Armenian media centered around Turkey and Azerbaijan claiming the dish because they wanted to conceal their early nomadic lifestyle.[4]

During Mexico's tortilla riots, protesters chanted, "tortillas si, pan no!", expressing their nationalistic objection to replacing tortillas, with which they identified on a nationalistic level, with bread, which they saw as a colonialist introduction.[1]^: 2[44]

UNESCO has included Turkish coffee in its list of items of Intangible Cultural Heritage.[1]^: 14 The style of coffee is also claimed by Greece.[45][46][47][48]

Washoku, a "traditional food culture of the Japanese, was in 2013 added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List and in 2017 described by Leiden University's Katarzyna J. Cwiertka as "a myth fabricated for the purpose of Japanese nation-branding".[49][1]^: 151 According to Ichijo and Ranta, Japan's efforts to promote Japanese cuisine in other countries is "regarded as a way of increasing export of Japanese agricultural produce and attracting more tourists".[1]^: 151