Hypolimnas bolina

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  Female, underside
• 
  Male, underside
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  Eggs
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  Caterpillar of race bolina
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  Pupa of race bolina

H. bolina is found in Madagascar in the west, through to South and Southeast Asia, Cambodia, the South Pacific islands (French Polynesia, Tonga, Tuvalu, Samoa, and Vanuatu), and occurs in parts of Australia as far south as Victoria during summer and autumn, Japan, and New Zealand.[2] Appearances in New Zealand appear to be linked with favourable winds during April–June migratory periods in Australia, with the butterfly being recorded in 1956, 1971, and 1995.[10] No populations have established locally in New Zealand.[10]

H. bolina is a generally common butterfly across most tropical and sub-tropical habitat types, including wet/dry woodland (such as tropical savanna), rainforest, and shrubland. It is a common visitor to suburban back yards and other areas of human disturbance. In the Australian tropics, H. bolina is particularly common along tracks, streambeds, and the corridors formed between remnant gallery forest and cultivated sugar cane fields. Both sexes are invariably found in association with one or more larval hostplant species, especially disturbance species such as Synedrella nodiflora, Sida rhombifolia, and Commelina cyanea.

To the west the female is monomorphic, mimicking species of the oriental and Australasian danaid genus Euploea. Eastwards H. bolina is frequently polymorphic and most forms are then non-mimetic. In areas where it resembles Euploea the butterfly has usually been designated a Batesian mimic.

Males are notably territorial.[11][12][13] Individuals are known to return to defend the same location for up to 54 days, with site fidelity increasing with age.[14] Territories that enhance the visual detection of adult females are preferred.[15] Females are usually found gliding close to the ground in southern areas.

Unlike congenerics such as Hypolimnas anomala, female H. bolina most often lay one or two eggs at a time. These are typically laid on the leaf underside. Early season (post-diapause) females in the Australian wet-dry tropics target freshly-germinated seedlings of their favoured host in this region, Synedrella nodiflora.[16] Eggs hatch after 3 days under a constant incubation temperature of ca. 25 degrees C. Newly hatched larva first consume their egg shell before feeding on the leaf upon which they were laid. Later larval instars are highly mobile and readily disperse in search of new host foliage. Individuals rarely pupate on (or in the immediate vicinity of) their host plant.

On the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai'i, a parasite (probably Wolbachia) had been killing the male members of Hypolimnas bolina. The problem was so severe that by 2001, males made up only 1% of the population. However, in 2007, it was reported that within a span of just 10 generations (about 5 years), the males had evolved to develop immunity to the parasite, and the male population increased to nearly 40%.[21] This evolutionary event involved changes at a single genomic region on chromosome 25,[22][23] and represents one of the fastest examples of natural selection observed to date in natural populations. Ed Yong has written a popular science account of this highly unusual evolutionary event.[24]

Listed alphabetically:[2]

• H. b. bolina (Linnaeus, 1758) – (Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, western Borneo, Sulawesi, Salayar, Kabaena, Galla, Banggai, Sula, Maluku, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, New Caledonia)
• H. b. constans (Butler, 1875) – (Tasmania?)
• H. b. enganica Fruhstorfer, 1904 – (Engano Island)
• H. b. gigas (Oberthür, 1879) – (Sangihe)
• H. b. incommoda Butler, 1879
• H. b. inconstans Butler, 1873 – (Navigator Islands)
• H. b. jacintha (Drury, 1773)
• H. b. jaluita Fruhstorfer, 1903
• H. b. kezia (Butler) – (Formosa)
• H. b. kraimoku (Eschscholtz, 1821) – (Lifu)
• H. b. labuana Butler, 1879 – (Labuan)
• H. b. lisianassa (Cramer, 1779) – (Moluccas)
• H. b. listeri Butler, 1888 – (Christmas Island)
• H. b. montrouzieri (Butler) – (Woodlark, Fergusson, Trobriand Islands)
• H. b. naresii Butler, 1883 – (Fiji)
• H. b. nerina (Fabricius, 1775) – (Timor - Kai, Aru, Waigeu, West Irian - Papua, northern Australia - eastern Victoria, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, New Zealand)
• H. b. pallescens (Butler) – (Fiji)
• H. b. philippensis (Butler, 1874) – (Philippines)
• H. b. pulchra (Butler) – (New Caledonia)
• H. b. rarik Eschscholtz, 1821) – (Lifu)

• Evolution of Male-Killer Suppression in a Natural Population
• Butterflycorner.net (English/German)
• Hypolimnas bolina at CalPhotos