Guanajuato (city)

The first known inhabitants of the area were the Otomi, who were then displaced by the Chichimeca.[4][5] There was Purépecha presence as well due mostly to ancient trading routes.[6] The oldest known name for the area is “Mo-o-ti,” which means “place of metals.” Later, it was called "Paxtitlán" by the Aztecs, which means “place of Spanish moss.”[7][8] The current name of Guanajuato comes from Purépecha kuanhasï juáta (or in older orthography "quanax huato"), which means “frog hill”.[5][9]

Mining had been done in this area long before the Spanish arrived. Late in the pre-Hispanic period the Aztecs had a presence here, specifically to look for metals to make ornamental objects for their political and religious elite. Some stories from this time state that the area was so rich in minerals that nuggets of gold could be picked up from the ground.[10]

The Spanish found deposits of gold here in the 1540s and soon they sent soldiers and built forts.[10] In 1548, the outpost was formally established with the name of Real de Minas de Guanajuato by viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza.[4][5] Despite Chichimeca attacks, the population of the area grew rapidly with the arrival of Spanish and Creole migrants and indigenous and mestizo traders and workers.[6][10] It was soon declared a town with the name of Santa Fe Real de Minas de Guanajuato, with Preafán de Rivera as mayor. Its first church was consecrated in 1555,[6] and it was named an “alcaldía mayor” in 1574.[4][5]

Initially, the city was divided into four barrios or neighborhoods called Marfil/Santiago, Tepetapa, Santa Ana and Santa Fe. The last is considered the oldest and is in the current colonia of Pastita. This city was split by a small river that served as a main thoroughfare.[6] The oldest neighborhoods are Rayas y Mellado, Cata, La Valenciana, and Pastita, named after the mines found there.[11]

The city's Spanish colonial past is well evidenced in its splendid architecture.

The very first mineral vein discovered, called San Bernabé, attracted attention not only in New Spain, but in Spain itself. The discovery brought thousands of migrants to the area, which led to the discovery of other deposits, such as at the Rayas mine. The San Bernabé find produced until 1928, when it tapped out. Today, the remains of this mine are found in the small village of La Luz, just outside the city proper.[12]

In 1679, by decree of viceroy of Mexico Fray Payo Enriquez de Rivera, the name was changed to Ciudad de Santa Fe y Real de Minas de Guanajuato (Very Noble and Loyal City of Santa Fe y Real de Minas de Guanajuato). It received an escutcheon in the same year, which is still in use. The city's coat of arms has a gold background with an image of a woman in the center referring to the Holy Faith (Santa Fe). It contains other images such as a seashell supported by two laurel branches, blue ribbon and marble columns. It is topped with the royal crown of Castille and acanthus leaves.[4][5]

In 1741, the city received the title of “The Most Noble and Loyal City of Santa Fe de Minas de Guanajuato” and became an “intendencia” (province) in 1790 because of the abundance of riches coming from its mines.[6] In the 18th century, it was the world's leading silver extraction center,[13] making it the richest city in Mexico for much of the early colonial period.[14] The production of the La Valenciana mine alone affected the world economy, and made the counts of Valencianas one of the most powerful families in New Spain.[10] The city was one of the richest and most opulent in New Spain in the 18th century. This wealth is manifested in its civil and religious architecture.[6] The colonial architecture includes some of the best Baroque and Churrigueresque examples in the New World—such as the Valenciana, Cata, and La Compañía (Jesuit) Churches, and the Basilica of Our Lady of Guanajuato.[14] Most constructions from this time are of pink or green sandstone. In the churches, the Baroque altars were gilded with gold from local mines.[10] These structures have influenced later buildings throughout central Mexico. According to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the La Compañía and La Valenciana churches are considered among the most beautiful examples of Baroque architecture in Central and South America.[13]

Monument to the Pípila, legendary hero of the Mexican War of Independence.

Guanajuato in the 19th century

By the end of the 18th century, the lower classes were poor and oppressed despite the great wealth coming out of the mines. One event foreshadowing the Mexican War of Independence was a revolt carried out in the city attacking the heavily militarized Caja Real (building to hold the Crown's share of mining production) to protest the high taxes. One year later there were large protests against the expulsion of the Jesuits.[15]

The War of Independence broke out in the state of Guanajuato in the town of Dolores, when Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla shouted the “Grito de Dolores” and raised an insurgent army on September 15 and 16, 1810. This army marched to San Miguel, today San Miguel de Allende, and then on to the city of Guanajuato. Just on the outskirts on September 28, 1810, Hidalgo sent a warning letter to city authorities, but it was ignored.[4] Instead, royalist troops and many of the elite made their stand at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas granary, an imposing building with few windows and thick walls. After entering the city unopposed, Hidalgo decided to attack the granary. This was the first battle against Spanish troops in the war and is popularly called the 'Siege of the Alhondiga'.[4][5] The insurgents were unable to take the heavily defended building as royalist gunfire kept them from approaching the only entrance until a miner by the name of Juan José de los Reyes Martínez, better known as El Pípila, strapped a large flat stone onto his back for protection. Crawling, he carried a flask of tar and a torch. When he reached the wooden doors of the main entrance, he smeared it with the tar and set it on fire. This allowed the insurgents to penetrate the building, defeat the Spanish royalist army and elite, and take over the heavily fortified and defended building. This action is commemorated by a colossal statue of El Pípila on a hill overlooking the city.[16]

After Independence, the province of Guanajuato was made a state, and the city was made its capital in 1824. However, fighting in the state and the rest of the country continued as Liberals, who wanted a Federalist government, fought with Conservatives, who wanted a centralized government under a monarch or dictator. Power in the city and state changed hands between the two factions during much of the 19th century, taking its toll on mining. The city was the provisional capital of the country in 1858 as Liberal president Benito Juárez fought Conservative rebels. In 1863, the French took the city during the French Intervention in Mexico, receiving a visit from the installed Emperor Maximiliano I and his wife, Carlota. French occupation ended in early 1867. The Mexican General Florencio Antillón captured it on January 26, 1868, from the Conservatives.[4][5]

Mining reactivated around the 1870s due to foreign investments encouraged by the Porfirio Díaz government. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries this renewed economic activity spurred new era Mexican projects such as the Juárez Theater, the Esperanza Dam, the Monumento a la Paz, the Hidalgo Monument and the State Government Palace.[4][5][14]

Flooding had been a serious problem through most of the city's history, due to the area's steep compact hillsides. In 1760 and 1780 two major floods nearly wiped it out. This spurred construction of large ditches and tunnels to contain and divert overflows during the rainy season. These eventually crisscrossed a large part of the city.[17] Dam construction in the 1960s brought the flooding under control,[16] and many of the ditches and tunnels were converted into underground roadways.[6]

The first Festival Internacional Cervantino was held in 1972.[18] The historic city center was declared a World Heritage Site in 1988.[13]

Two climates predominate. One is fairly hot and dominates in the south and southeast portions of the municipality. The other is temperate and dominates the rest of the territory, including the city. In the warmer areas, temperatures can reach as high as 36 °C (97 °F) in the summer and in the coldest area can get as low as 3 °C (37 °F) in the winter. Average temperature overall is 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) with an average annual precipitation of between 600 and 840 mm (23.6 and 33.1 in). Most of the rain falls during the monsoon season between June and September.[5]

The Guanajuato underground tunnels are a network of wide channels that help lead traffic away from the city center. These tunnels have different layer crossroads and underground junctions. The tunnels are used for traffic which is heading in an eastwards direction. The westward direction passes through the center of Guanajuato. All of the tunnels have footpaths and even some of the bus stops are subterranean.

The tunnel system of Guanajuato was built to prevent flooding. Túnel La Galereña is the longest tunnel of this network and was excavated in the early 19th century to lead the Guanajuato River away from the center of the city. In 1960s the old river tunnels were strengthened, as they were in a bad condition and showed signs of collapse and subsidence. After the reconstruction, they were converted into a road tunnel. The first road journey was in 1961. But the old tunnels were of a suitable size for cars, medium-sized bus and vans but prevented larger transport getting into the city. A second tunnel was dug during the late 1960s, which diverted the river much deeper. Several additional tunnels were excavated during the 1990s.[26]

Plaza de la Paz and the Basílica colegiata de Nuestra Señora de Guanajuato (2009)

The center of the modern city is Plaza de la Paz (Plaza of Peace), also known as Plaza Mayor (Main Plaza). Since the colonial period, the richest of the city's families built their main homes here, along with government buildings and the parish church, now a basilica. This plaza is a garden with a sculpture of a woman representing peace; its placement here in the late 19th century caused the official name to change to Plaza de la Paz. Today, the plaza is surrounded by the basilica, other churches, and governmental and commercial buildings, many of which were once mansions.[23][42] Still remaining around the plaza are mansions that belonged to local nobility such as the Counts of Rul, Count of Gálvez, and the Count De los Chico. The Rul house was constructed at the end of the 18th century by architect Francisco Eduardo Tresguerras. It is noted for its inner courtyard,[6] with architectural features from ancient Greece. Alexander von Humboldt stayed here in 1803. Later, the house became known as Palacio de Otero.[23] The Casa Real de Ensaye is a Baroque mansion that, on its façade, bears the first noble coat of arms granted in Guanajuato.[6]

The main church of the city is Basílica Colegiata de Nuestra Señora de Guanajuato built between 1671 and 1696.[43] Overall, the church is a sober Mexican Baroque in style but there are popular elements from donations made by the area's miners, and other elements that demonstrate the influence of several of the city's rich mining nobility. The Marquis of San Clemente and Pedro Lascuráin de Retana were the current building's first patrons. Later, the Counts of Valenciana left their influence as well with the donation of a clock for one of the towers and the acquisition of relics related to a saint and martyr named Faustina obtained from the Pope. These relics are in the main altar.[44] The main portal is made of pink sandstone with “estipite” or inverted truncated pyramidal columns.[6] The focus of the main altar is the image of Our Lady of Guanajuato (Nuestra Señora de Guanjuato), who is the patroness of the city. She was donated to the city by Carlos I and his son Felipe II in 1557.[23] In 1696, the church gained minor basilica status and full basilica status in 1957.[44]

The Legislative Palace or state government building was the site of the Aduana or Casas Consistoriales (customs house) in the colonial period. The current building was constructed by Cecilio Luis Long in a European style popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and inaugurated in 1903.The façade has a Neoclassical portal in sandstone of colors typical of the Guanajuato area. It contains the legislative chamber called the Sala de Sessiones, decorated with 19th- and 20th-century paintings and somber furniture.[23][42]

Historical monument of Alhóndiga de Granaditas for a night concert during the Cervantino Festival.

Alhóndiga de Granaditas is a very large building covering an entire block. It was originally built to store enough grain to feed the city for a year to protect the population against famines such as those that occurred in 1783, due to crop failure.[23] This gave the building its name, which roughly translates to “house of grain.”[45] The building is two floors, nearly windowless with a very large courtyard in its interior.[44][46] Construction began in 1798 under an architect named Durán y Villaseñor and terminated under José del Mazo.[6]

The Alhóndiga only served its original function for eight months after it was built.[40][47] The main reason for its importance today is that it was the site of the first battle of the Mexican War of Independence between insurgents and royalist troops on September 28, 1810.[5] When Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende and the insurgent army approached the city, royalist troops under Lieutenant Riaño and the city's elite took refuge in the building,[23] along with millions of pesos of silver and other loot.[46] The insurgents quickly surrounded the building, but the building proved difficult to penetrate due to the lack of openings and royalist gunfire.[46]

The battle remained a stalemate until a miner from San Miguel de Allende devised a way to approach the building's main entrance. This miner, whose name was Juan José de los Reyes Martínez, is better known as El Pípila, who had joined the insurgent army as it passed through his hometown.[46] El Pípila strapped a large flat stone over his back and, carrying a flask of tar and a torch, crawled towards the main entrance. The stone protected him from the bullets fired at him. When he reached the heavy wooden door of the entrance, he smeared it with tar and lit it. This allowed insurgents to then take the building.[46]

After the battle it was used as barracks, a tenement and tobacco warehouse.[47] From 1864 to 1949, it was used as the state penitentiary.[45] In 1949 the building was converted into the Museo Regional de Guanajuato, documenting the history of the area and its role in Mexican national history from the pre-Hispanic period to the present divided among fourteen halls on the upper floor.[23][45][47] On the ground floor there are large mascarons of José Mariano Jiménez, Vicente Guerrero, Ignacio Allende and Ignacio Aldama. The main hall has mascarons of Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos y Pavón who “guard” the national coat of arms. In front of this is an eternal flame that is renewed each September 28. The walls of the main stairwell contain mural work by José Chávez Morado that alludes to Independence.[23] It houses a large collection of ceramics from western parts of Mesoamerica, especially from Chupícuaro. It contains works by Guanajuato artist Hermeneguildo Bustos and photographer Romualdo García.[47] There are displays related to the building itself, to its construction, its original function as a granary and its role in one of the first battles of the War of Independence.[40][48] The large courtyard within the Alhóndiga is a traditional place to celebrate Mexico's Independence Day with the reenactment of Miguel Hidalgo's “El Grito de Dolores.” It is one of the sites for a number of the events of the Festival Cervantino.[44] The museum was restored in 2010 for the Bicentennial by the INAH at a cost of 5.7 million pesos as part of similar museums in Dolores Hidalgo and San Miguel de Allende to form the Ruta de Independencia (Independence Route).[40][48] The work was the first renovation of the building in 20 years.[49]

University of Guanajuato

The University of Guanajuato began as a Jesuit school for children in the first half of the 18th century. The establishment of this school was sponsored by Josefa Teresa de Busto y Moya, sister of the Marquis of San Clemente, who obtained permission for the school from the Spanish Crown in 1732 and established the institution in her home. She donated a fifth of her fortune toward it and worked to obtain donations from other wealthy families in the city.[50] However, credit for the establishment of the school is most often given to Jesuits.[6][51] Over time, the school grew and began to offer high school and professional level studies. It held several names over its history, from Real Colegio de la Purísima Concepción (1767), Colegio del Estado (1828), Colegio Nacional de Guanajuato (1867), with its current name adopted in 1945.[50] The Colegio del Estado name was prompted by the fact that the institution became the property of the state in 1828. In 1945, it gained university status.[51]

Today the institution serves approximately 30,000 students at the high school, bachelor's and graduate levels. In addition to the main campus in the city, there are nine others in other parts of Guanajuato state. The university hosts a number of the events of the Festival Cervantino, with its famous stairway acting as seating.[50] The best known facility of the institution is the main building in Guanajuato city, which was built in Neoclassical style in green stone. It houses the dean's office, administrative offices and a number of the institution's departments.[51] The main building is recognized by its long staircase with 113 steps, which empties onto the Callejón del Estudiante. Under the main roof is a 16th-century chapel that was sponsored by Vasco de Quiroga for indigenous mine workers. It's called the Templo de los Hospitales (Temple of the Hospitals). It received the image of the Virgin of the Rosary, now called the Nuestra Señora de Guanajuato.[23][27]

The Museo de Historia Natural Alfredo Dugès is on the ground floor of the University of Guanajuato's main building. It contains a national-level collection of fossils, plants and animals. The importance of this collection comes from its state of conservation and its age. The collection was gathered by Alfredo Dugés and donated to the university.[50]

The city is dotted with a large number of small plazas or squares that were built along with the churches that usually gave them their names.[6] One of the best-known plazas or open spaces is Jardín de la Unión, on the south side of San Diego Church. The garden is filled with carefully pruned Indian laurels and, in addition to the church, is surrounded by small cafes, restaurants, and Juárez Theater. It occupies a triangular space that originally was the church atrium. In 1883, wrought iron benches and a kiosk were installed. Today, concerts are held in this kiosk on occasion.[23][52] It is popular with wandering student musicians performing callejoneadas and functions as the atrium of San Diego Church.[44] This church has a Churrigueresque façade. The interior has paintings from the 18th century, Neoclassical altarpieces and a crucifix called Cristo de Burgos, which was donated to the church by the Count of Valenciana.[23] The current church was built between 1780 and 1784 by the Count of Valenciana after the original was destroyed by a flood. In the 19th century, its original gilded altarpieces were replaced with the current Neoclassical ones.[6][53] The monastery, which was also destroyed, was never rebuilt, but the site is now home to San Diego Museum. It was created to rescue and display the cultural inheritance of the city, describing its development and changes from its beginnings to the present day.[54] It also contains a computer simulation of what the original monastery looked like.[23]

La Compañía Church

Located next to the university, the Templo de la Compañía de Jesús (Temple of the Society of Jesus), or Oratorio de San Felipe (commonly known as "La Compañía"), was built in 1746 by José Joaquín Sardaneta y Legazpi.[6] It was completed in 1767, the same year that the Jesuits were expelled from New Spain. The new church remained abandoned until 1804, when the order was allowed to return and reclaim it. The order then worked to renovate the church, replacing Baroque elements with Neoclassical ones, which were then in fashion.[55] It has a façade with narrow estipite columns in Churrigueresque style, but its more famous aspect is a colossal cupola with three levels, which was added in the 19th century by architect Vicente Heredia.[6][23] Inside, a collection of 180 paintings were recently studied and restored. Some of these paintings are displayed in the church complex, while the rest are kept in a pinacotheca created for the purpose.[55] The main altar and the paintings are by Miguel Cabrera.[23]

Dating from 1726, the oldest plaza still in existence is Plaza de Baratillo. The name comes from a weekly market, once held on Sundays. This market specialized in low prices (baratillo means “very cheap”). In the center is a fountain brought from Florence, Italy. This fountain once provided area residents with potable water from the Olla Dam. Today, it is purely ornamental.[56]

Another important area of the historic center is the San Roque plaza and church. There is a stone cross, which indicates the ground was once used as a cemetery.[54] Starting in the 1950s, this plaza was used for short one-act plays called Entremeses Cervantinos, which later developed into the Festival Cervantino. The plaza is still used for these plays as well as events associated with the annual event.[54][57] San Roque Church dates from 1726. It has a sober Baroque façade and contains an important collection of colonial era paintings.[54]

Other important churches include the Temple of Guadalupe from the 18th century in sober Baroque, and El Pardo Church from the 18th century with a façade covered with sculpted plants.[6] San Francisco Church on Sopeña Street faces a plaza with the same name.[6] It has a Baroque façade of pink stone with a green tint, a staircase with wrought iron railings and a small fountain.[43][54] Belén Church was built in the 18th century by the Count of Valenciana with a modest façade. It is across from Hidalgo Market and on the street leading to Alhóndiga de Granaditas.[6][54] El Mellado Church was part of La Merced Monastery. The cloister area is now in ruins but the church remains and is dedicated to the veneration of Our Lady of Mercy. The original Baroque altarpieces were replaced with Neoclassical ones in the 19th century.[43]

Jardín Reforma or Reforma Square was originally a market, built in 1861. When Hidalgo Market opened, most vendors moved out. In 1923, the site was renovated into a garden with a central fountain and Indian laurel, eucalyptus and cypress trees.[58] Jardín Reforma has an arched entryway with a series of thin columns.[42]

Plaza del Quijote is at the old San Antonio bridge and to the side of San Diego Church. The plaza was created to honor the 400th anniversary of the first edition of Don Quixote of La Mancha in 1605.[23]

Teatro Juárez

The Juárez Theater (Teatro Juárez) is located across from the San Diego Church in the city's downtown. It is one of the main venues of the Cervantino Festival.[59] It is considered one of the most beautiful theaters in the country, according to Mexico Desconocido.[6] It was built from 1872 to 1903 and is in Neoclassical style with a façade containing nine sculptures depicting the Muses of Greek mythology.[23]

The south façade has a lintel with the word “Tragedia” on it and on the north façade, the matching lintel reads “Comedia.” The interior has an eclectic design richly decorated. The vestibule or foyer (also called the Smoking Room) has columns and garlands. The auditorium is Mauresque with Arabesque detail throughout. The curtain contains an image of Constantinople.[60] The theater was built from 1872 to 1903 by Antonio Rivas Mercado, who designed the Angel of Independence monument in Mexico City, and was inaugurated with the opera Aida by Giuseppe Verdi with President Porfirio Díaz in attendance.[23] It is the only theater in the country that has conserved its original furnishings.[60]

On the side of Juárez Theater, there is Rincón del Arte. Next to this is a cable car that rises up to the Pípila Monument on San Miguel Hill.[23] The monument honors the insurgent who managed to torch the main entrance of Alhóndiga de Granaditas. The monument consists of a giant statue of El Pípila raising a torch over his head. Around the monument, there is an esplanade and overlook which permits a panoramic view of nearly the entire city.[23][50]

Teatro Principal (Main Theater) was built at the city's height when the wealth of the mines attracted entertainers. It was the first theater in the city, built in Neoclassical style and one of the few places where people of different social strata could enter. The theater closed periodically during its early history due to sociopolitical upheavals. After the Mexican Revolution, it was converted into a movie theater. Shortly after this, it suffered a fire and closed for 30 years. Today, it is reconstructed and run by the University of Guanajuato as one of the main venues of the Cervantino Festival.[59]

Unlike other theaters in the city, which were stage theaters converted into movie houses at one point or another, Cervantes Theater was a movie house that was converted into a stage theater. It is used for puppet shows, dance recitals, experimental theater and conferences.[42]

Hidalgo Market

Hidalgo Market was built by Ernesto Brunel in 1910 over what was the site of the old Gavira bullring. It was inaugurated by President Porfirio Díaz to celebrate Mexico's Centennial of Independence. The roof has a cupola with a clock tower. The clock has four faces.[23] The interior of the market is a giant metallic nave.[42] The market sells typical candies of the region such as “charamuscas,” which are often shaped as a charro or mummy and wrapped in wax paper. The upper floor of the market contains a large number of crafts and souvenir shops containing products such as baskets, knit items, ceramics, leathercrafts and more.[23] The ground floor has many everyday items such as fresh and packaged food, household goods, wickerwork and hardware.[61]

Museo del Pueblo de Guanajuato was created to exhibit the best of the artwork of the city. It contains an important collection of religious art from the 17th to 19th centuries. It contains collections of works by Olga Costa and José Chávez Morado.[54] This includes three murals by Chávez Morado set up as altars. These murals depict the end of the colonial period and the War of Independence.[23]

Santa Cecilia Castle

Diego Rivera Museum was the house where the painter was born and spent his early childhood. The first floor is dedicated to furniture and other items from the late 19th century. The floors above contain a large collection of paintings, about 100 of which are Rivera's early and little known works. It has workshops for arts, literary events, film showings and other cultural activities.[23][59]

Very near Jardín Unión, on Luis González Obregón Street is Casa de Gobierno, where Benito Juárez made the city the temporary capital of Mexico. Next to Casa de Gobierno is Real Caja de Guanajuato, which dates from 1665. It was the scene of the naming of the first authorities of a Mexico declared liberated from Spanish rule. Later it was used as a women's prison and teachers’ college.[23]

Museo Iconográfico del Quijote is on Manuel Doblado Street. It was created in 1987 to honor Don Quixote. The museum contains visual representations of the character, including some created by notable artists such as Pedro Coronel, José Guadalupe Posada and Salvador Dalí.[54]

Casa Museo Gene Byron

Museo de Arte Olga Costa y José Chávez Morado is in Pastita neighborhood, installed in a building in the former Guadalupe Hacienda. This was the home of the two artists, who donated the structure and their personal art collection to the city after their deaths. The collection contains their own works as well as works by a number of other artists.[17]

Casa Museo Gene Byron,[62] in the suburb of Marfil, was the former Santa Ana Hacienda and belonged to Canadian artist Gene Byron. Byron began studying Mexican muralists in 1941, but her work was also influenced by contemporary Spanish artists. She and her husband settled in Guanajuato in 1958, and took over this ex-hacienda in 1962. Today the grounds are a cultural center that hosts art exhibitions, theatrical productions, concerts, and book presentations.[17]