Education in Kenya

Historical records, not only from the travels of Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, reveal that Swahilis had access to education as far back as 1728 with a Swahili manuscript Utendi wa Tambuka (Book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries interacted with locals in the coastal town of Mombasa and set up one of the earliest mission schools in the country at Rabai in 1846.

With the expansion of the railway from Mombasa to Uganda, the missionaries expanded their work into Kenya's interior. An attempt to set up a school and mission at Yatta in 1894 was resisted by the Kamba tribe. The missionaries then penetrated into western Kenya and set up schools and missions. The first school in western Kenya was established at Kaimosi in 1903.

During the colonial era, the number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education. Among those who furthered their education abroad in the colonial era were Jomo Kenyatta, who attended Woodbrooke College and London School of Economics, Charles Njonjo, who attended Gray's Inn Law School, Peter Mbiyu Koinange, who attended Columbia University, Mwai Kibaki who attended London School of Economics, R. Mugo Gatheru who attended Roosevelt University, Tom Mboya, who attended Ruskin College, Oxford, Masinde Muliro, who attended University of Cape Town, Julius Gikonyo Kiano who attended Stanford University, and Barack Obama Sr., who attended the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Between 1959 and 1963, eight hundred Kenyan students attended US and Canadian universities.[2]

Julius Gikonyo Kiano was the first Kenyan to obtain a PhD. The trend steadily rose over the years and by the time of independence in 1963, 840,000 African children were attending elementary school.

Pre-Independence Schools in Kenya

Nairobi Primary school.

History form 1

1. Rabai Mission School near Mombasa (1847): established by missionaries Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann from the Anglican Church Mission Society
2. United Methodist School (1862): (later in 1963 the co-educational Ribe Secondary School, in 1989 Ribe Boys and Ribe Girls High Schools), established at Ribe, Kilifi County
3. Rift Valley Academy (1903): established as the first up-country European school by the Africa Inland Mission
4. Friends School Kaimosi (1903): now Kaimosi Friends Primary School
5. Railway School Nairobi (1904)
6. Maseno School (1906): established in Maseno
7. Railway Education Centre (1906): (later Government Indian School then The Duke of Gloucester School, now Jamhuri High School), established in Ngara, Nairobi
8. Tumutumu Mission School (1908): (now Tumutumu Girls' High School and Kagumo Teachers College) established as a co-ed primary school in Nyeri County by the Church of Scotland Mission
9. Nairobi European School (1910): (now Nairobi Primary School), co-educational school from which emerged The Prince of Wales School in 1931 at Kabete (now Nairobi School) and The European Girls' Secondary School in 1935 (now The Kenya High School)
10. Kabare School (1911): (from 1964 Kabare Girls High School), established by the Church Mission Society in Kirinyaga County
11. Mutige School (1911): (later Mutige Boys High School), established by the Church Mission Society in Kirinyaga County
12. Indian School (1912): in Mombasa County
13. Butere Girls High School (1916)
14. Loreto Convent Msongari (1921): "Msongari" being a corruption of Muthangari where the school is located in Westlands Sub-county, was established by the Institute of the Blessed Virgin (Sisters of Loreto)
15. Hill Preparatory School (1922): (later Limuru Girls High School in 1926), established by European settler, Arnold Buttler McDonell, on his Kiambethu Farm in Limuru, Kiambu County
16. Kabaa High School (1923): established by the Catholic Church in Machakos County
17. Waa High School (1923): established in Kwale County
18. The Hill School (1923): established in Eldoret as European Primary School, later Central School then Highlands School, which in 1956 amalgamated with New Girls' Secondary School (today Moi Girls' High School, Eldoret)
19. Allidina Visram High School (1923): established in Mombasa County as a rehousing and secondary extension of the Indian School
20. Kenton College (January 1924): (now Kenton College Preparatory School), established in Kijabe, moving to Kileleshwa in 1935, taking its roots from The Grange School at Limuru
21. Central Training School for Catechists (1925): (later Catholic Central School and Kabaa School, now Mang'u High School), established in Thika by Dutch priest Michael Joseph Witte (from the Holy Ghost Fathers)
22. Government African School (1925): (now Kapsabet High School) in Nandi County
23. Jeanes School Kabete (1925): (later Public Service Management and Development Institute plus Kenya Medical Training College in 1961, Kenya Institute of Administration in 1963, and in 2012 Kenya School of Government), established in Kabete[3]
24. Jeanes School Maseno: (later in 1961 Maseno Training Centre, in 1967 Maseno Government Training Institute, in 1990 merged with Siriba Teachers' College to form Maseno University College, in 2001 Maseno University)
25. Alliance School (1926): now Alliance High School (Kenya) established as a junior secondary school by an aliianceof churches
26. Francis Scott High School (1927): (later in 1963 Nakuru High School plus Nakuru Girls Secondary School in 1961)
27. St. Mary's School Yala (1927)
28. Kitale Primary (1929): (later Kitale Academy, now Kitale School)
29. St. Andrews School (1931)
30. Kisii School (1932)
31. Government African School Kakamega (later Kakamega High School (1932): (now Kakamega School)
32. The Duchess of Gloucester School (1932): (now Pangani Girls High School), established in Pangani, Nairobi
33. Kagumo High School (1933) established as a primary school in Kiganjo (Nyeri County)
34. Mombasa European Primary School (1935): (MEPS, from 1962 Mombasa Primary School), established in Mombasa[4]
35. Buxton School (1935): (later Ronald Ngala Primary School), established by the Church Mission Society in Mombasa
36. Greensteds School (1936): established in Nakuru
37. Loreto High School, Limuru (December 1936): established by the Sisters of Loreto in Limuru
38. Our Lady Consolata Mugoiri Girls High School (1938): in Murang'a County (formerly Gaiteiguru Intermediary School)
39. St. Mary's School, Nairobi (1939): established by the Holy Ghost Fathers, today located on the land of St. Austin’s Parish in Muthangari, Westlands Sub-county
40. Loreto Convent Valley Road (1941): established by the Sisters of Loreto in Upper Hill, Nairobi
41. Kangaru schools (1947): in Embu County, established as a Church Mission Society primary school, later Government African Teacher Training Center and Secondary School (G.A.T.T.C. & S.S) in 1952, and African Girls Intermediate School (GAGI) in 1953. Embu Girls High School was fused into the school in July 1973, separating again in 1989
42. African Girls High School (1948): (now Alliance Girls High School)
43. The Duke of York School (1949): (now Lenana School)
44. Delamere School (1956): established in Nairobi, from which emerged in 1959 New Girls Secondary School (later Delamere Girls High School, now State House Girls High School) and Delamere Boys High School (later Simba Secondary School, now Upper Hill School)
45. Starehe Boys' Centre and School (November 1959): established by Dr. Geoffrey William Griffin, Geoffrey Gatama Geturo and Joseph Kamiru Gikubu in Starehe, Nairobi
46. Bishop Gatimu Ngandu Girls High School (1960): established by The Right Reverend Caesar Gatimu in Karatina, Nyeri County

Education quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The Kenyan government's primary document influencing this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Program for 2005–2010, established the National Assessment Centre (NAC) to monitor learning achievement. In 2010, the NAC released the results of its first assessment.

In 2009, in collaboration with the NAC, Uwezo Kenya conducted an assessment of the basic literacy and numeracy skills of children ages 6–16. The Annual Learning Assessment (ALA) reached villages in 70 out of 158 districts in Kenya and assessed nearly 70,000 children in their homes. The ALA was set at a Standard 2 level, which is the level where students are supposed to achieve basic competency in reading English and Kiswahili and complete simple arithmetic problems. The chart below shows the percent of children who could not read a Standard 2 level paragraph or solve Standard 2 level subtraction problems:[10]

Key findings about education in Kenya, based on the results of the Uwezo 2009 assessment:[11]

1. Literacy levels are low, and are substantially lower in certain regions. Girls tend to perform better in reading English and Kiswahili, while boys tend to perform better in math.
2. Literacy levels are lower in public schools than private schools.
3. Most children can solve real world, "ethno-mathematics" problems, while fewer can solve similar math problems in an abstract, pencil and paper format.
4. 5% of children are not enrolled in school, but the problem is far worse in particular regions.
5. About half of children are enrolled in pre-school.
6. Many children are older than expected for their class level, including 40% of children in class 2, and 60% of children in class 7.
7. North Eastern Province and arid districts in Rift Valley and Eastern Provinces have particularly low performance; and many older children, especially girls, are not attending school.
8. Many families pay for extra tuition, which focuses heavily on drilling and exam preparation.
9. Schools struggle to plan their budgets because they receive funds at unpredictable times.
10. Children whose mothers are educated, particularly beyond primary school, tend to have much higher rates of literacy and numeracy.
11. About 15% of students are absent on a given day, with much higher absenteeism in certain districts as a result of increased poverty level.
12. There is a severe shortage of teachers, estimated at 4 teachers per school.
13. The reluctance of the government to invest in educational institutions in marginalized areas thereby developing schools in cities only which result in inefficient education process in arid and semi-arid areas
14. Embezzlement of public funds by school administrators and lack of accountability of the use of government grants and high levels of corruption in educational institutions

Due to the mentioned problems in public education, private school are soaring in popularity, even among families that can ill afford school fees.[12]

Early Childhood Development (ECD) education or Pre-primary education is a foundation for later learning and development and it targets children aged 0–5 years with a focus on igniting the child's potential for lifelong adaptability, innovation and communication skills while imparting in them the values of responsible citizenship and respect for diversity. ECD is classified into three different clusters i.e.

• Baby-class
• Nursery school
• Pre-unit

Between the years of 2003-2007, the educational sector strategic plan and implementation plan committed to eliminating poverty as an educational development hindrance, promoting human rights through provisions of education, and attaining sustainable development of quality basic education for all. This implementation is a positive step towards education access in Kenya. One of the first steps to access education is at the early childhood development (ECD), primary, and secondary levels. The government assessed the high need for a change in access due to half of the population being composed of young people. According to Achoka et al. (2007), 20% of these people are under the age of five years old. ECD implementation is crucial in the school systems because the ages of 0-5 and key developmental years. While the children are rapidly developing, they are also the most vulnerable to environmental factors and influences. An effective ECD programme could create a beneficial foundation for further education and training. Between the years 1992 and 2002 there was a 68.9% increase in the number of ECD centers. [13]

The accessibility of education is influenced by four main factors: poverty, regional and gender disparities, policy framework, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. In 2002, roughly 56% of the population lived in poverty. The people living in these conditions are also unable to acquire proper dietary needs, medical needs, and a clean and stable habitat. The children who are born into these conditions are predisposed to the disadvantaged access of education specifically to ECD. Not only can this influence their access to education, it can also influence their growth and development. While the government tries to offer some support, a majority of the costs associated with education are covered solely by the parents. Many of the families that are living in poverty are unable to afford to send their children to school. [14] In today’s highly competitive and challenge-ridden world, education can play a vital role in developing people’s characters development and promoting levels of personal growth needed to survive and thrive. Unlike uneducated people, person who pass successfully through the education system undergo experiences that often expose them to diverse cultures, worldviews, and ideas that will help foster global awareness, empathy, and vital skills needed to interact with diverse people, collaborate, learn, and pursue successful lives. In other words, it provides a sense of self-discovery and helps people form their values, beliefs, and identities. However, education as it exists today has its limitations, including following a standardized curriculum that leaves little room for personal interests and individualized learning (Schlegel et al., 2019). Such factors affect creativity and often prevent people from pursuing their unique passions and talents. Also, marginalized groups may not access education due to economic disparities that affect their opportunities for personal growth and success. In the 21st century, education is evolving, and lifelong learning continues to be relevant as many people adapt to the ever-changing technologies and industries. Online courses and self-directed learning are common today, and they offer flexibility but need strong self-discipline. Generally, education is a stepping stone to a meaningful life as it equips one with various skills and broadens horizons. It is only one part of the journey to success and personal fulfilment in today's changing world.

Geographically, Kenya is very varied and diverse. Northern Kenya are Arid and Semi-Ari Lands (ASALs), but the Central and Western areas are wetlands. Although the government has attempted to achieve accessible education for all citizens, many of the people living in the ASAL regions are continuously moving in search of Wetlands for their families and their livestock. Due to the constant migrations, their lifestyles create conflicts in education access as they are not in an area for long enough to begin the schooling process for their children in the required ECD education. Additionally, there have been land/tribal conflicts which results in families being exiled or parents being killed. The children in these conditions remain unsupported for any education needs as the parents cannot afford it. Connected to the geographical barriers are the cultural barriers in Kenya as well. Although the government attempts to provide equal educational opportunities regardless of gender, some parents focus their attention and resources on males and their education since they are seen as more of an asset to their family. As a result, more males than females are enrolled in ECD programs which creates a gender disparity. [14]

Another area of concern in ECD education is the lack of adequate policy framework which has created inconsistent and unmeasurable curriculum. This has a major effect on the children's primary education entry behavior. The group that is most affected by this are the poverty-stricken parents in rural communities. Managing these behaviors are left to the abilities of the educators, but in some areas, the extent of ECD education is processed in rooms called “academies.” Many of the teachers/caregivers in the academies may not have any training. With a variety of factors, some of these centers are not productive learning environments and make it extremely difficult to detect children with special needs. [14]

In recent years, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has been a concern for the citizens living in Kenya as it does not spare children. Many children who have HIV/AIDS are born to infected parents who transfer it to them. A majority of those children die within their first five years of life. The infant mortality rate and under-five years mortality rate has significantly increased in recent years. Since it affects a large percentage of the population, this could directly influence the numbers of ECD centers available. [14]

Primary education marks the beginning of the 8-4-4 Curriculum. It begins at the age of 5 to 7 after completion of a year of kindergarten commonly known as nursery school or pre-unit. The first class or year of primary school is known as Standard 1, the final year as Standard 8 and primary school children are known as pupils. The school year at both primary and secondary levels, begins in January and ends in November. Students get 3 school vacations in April, August and December.

At the end of the school year, students advance to the next grade. Since repetition was banned students still progress to the next grade even though they fail their examinations. Most primary schools are day schools with pupils living at home. Fewer schools at primary level are boarding schools compared to secondary schools. All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education examination at the end of the school year in Standard eight.[15] In primary school, students are taught English, Kiswahili and Indigenous language activities.[16]

• • Lower primary: This is a 4-year period that marks the first transition into the mainstream primary education system.[17] and starts at ages 6 or 7. The grading system is called "standard", meaning the first four years the students transitions from standard one, through four.
  • Upper primary: This is also a 4-year period that helps prepare the students for the high school years. At standard 7, the students become more aware of which high schools they want to attend. During the last year of the primary school system, students are allowed to select 4 to 6 secondary schools that they would like to attend including one national school and take the KCPE, which validates their transition to high school.

Universal Primary Education (UME), an international development goal created by the World Conference on Education, has led to Kenya's target of universal primary education for all citizens. Since 2003, enrollments have increased drastically and today Kenya has much closer rates of enrollment to first world countries, such as the United States.[18] In January 2003 President Mwai Kibaki re-introduced free primary education which previously existed before the mid-80s when the government adopted cost-sharing measures that led to a minor level of school fees charged by primary schools for textbooks, PTA, and extracurricular activities. Since 2003, education in public schools became free and compulsory (Kenya Constitution, Article 53, 2010). On learning that primary education had once again[19] become free in Kenya, Kimani Maruge, an uneducated farmer and the world's oldest person to enrol in primary school joined Kapkenduiywo primary school in Eldoret at the age of 84. He was elected head boy at the age of 86 in 2005.[20]

Secondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories: government-funded, Harambee and private. Government-funded schools are divided into national, provincial and district levels. Harambee schools do not receive full funding from the government and private schools are run by private organizations or individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam and successfully passing, government-funded schools select students in order of scores.

Students with the highest scores gain admission into national schools while those with average scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee schools accept students with low scores. Students who fail their examinations pursue technical and vocational education. The latter is divided into technical secondary school (lasting 4 years) and apprenticeships solutions. Since 2010, technical secondary schools student can have access to university programmes.[21] A number of students also drop out of school by choice due to poor scores.

Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the school-leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first-class or year of secondary school is known as form 1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to November students sit for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans.

Historic prestigious national high schools include Mang'u High School, Alliance High School (Kenya), Lenana School and Starehe Boys' Centre and School. Private secondary schools in Kenya are generally high cost, offering students an alternative system of education with better or more luxurious facilities compared to public schools. They are often favoured for prestige. Most private schools in Kenya offer the British system of education which includes "O-levels" and "A-levels". Very few offer the American system of education and a good number of them offer the Kenya system. Some of the oldest private schools in Kenya include Loreto Convent Msongari, Nairobi (1921), St. Mary's School, Nairobi, Braeburn School, Consolata School, Strathmore School, Oshwal Academy, Rift Valley Academy, Aga Khan Academy, Kenton College and Brookhouse School,

These institutions operate under the state department of vocational and technical training under the helm of a principal secretary. Current PS is Esther Thaara Muhoria.

They award artisan, craft and diploma and higher national diploma certificates after successful completion of relevant courses. Courses offered by these institutions include Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies, Nursing, Teacher Training, Computer Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign Languages, Tourism and Engineering. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics rank first, followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private institutions. Although generally termed colleges, these institutions do not award degrees. Degrees are only awarded by Universities and Technical Universities. Over time, education has been a critical component in the pursuit of a meaningful life. People can get knowledge, skills, and perspectives important for career success, personal growth, and social contributions. However, it is not appropriate to view education as the only way of fulfilling life due to its limitations. Education provides a good foundation for economic stability and career opportunities. When well-educated, people will cultivate problem-solving, critical thinking, and communication skills to navigate the complex and competitive job market in the 21st century (Tran, 2023). Notably, it brings opportunities and opens doors for people to pursue their passions and have a sense of purpose and fulfilment.

From July 2014, all government and private institutions offering Technical and Vocational Education and Training where put under "TVETA". Retrieved 10 October 2016..[23] this act normalized this sector as it had become tainted by unaccredited institutions offering substandard education as revealed by "The Standard". and "The Star". 2 December 2015. As of 10 October 2016 there were 540 institutions accredited by the Authority[24]

There are three types of government TVET institutions in Kenya. these are National Polytechnics, Technical Institutions and Vocational Education Centers (formerly Youth Polytechnics)[25] Notable Institutions include:

1. Technical University of Kenya
2. Technical University of Mombasa
3. The Sigalagala National Polytechnic
4. Rift Valley Technical Training InstituteS

There are 48 universities in Kenya, 22 of which are public and 26 private. The University of Nairobi is the oldest public university in Kenya while KAG East university is the oldest among the private universities.

While education accessibility has been of major importance at the primary and secondary levels in Kenya, the attempt of making education accessible has not been implemented at the higher education level, which leaves students from a lower socioeconomic status at a disadvantage compared to those of a higher socioeconomic status. In recent years there has been an increase in the cost of higher education worldwide, and there is no exception for Kenya which is limiting access to specific socioeconomic groups and those from different regions and ethnic groups since it favors and is more accessible to those who can afford it. There are very few students from disadvantaged backgrounds attending higher education institutions which is a reflection of the society and the quality of prior education. There are many social inequalities present in Kenya which have a direct impact on education such as: disparities in distribution of national income, security, and employment, levels of investment, health care, and public services are also evident across populations, genders, and ethnic groups. In an observation done by the Society for International Development, in 2004 10% of Kenya's population controlled about 42% of the national income while 10% contents with significantly less than 1%. The poverty gap has widened so significantly that the top 1% is making approximately $1,204 per month while the rest of the population is making approximately $181 per month. [26]

Immediately after independence, Kenya's public higher education was free for all students regardless of their socioeconomic status; it was fully funded by the government. This created a high demand for higher education which raised a concern for donor agencies. At that time, the demand was continuously increasing, but Kenya's economy was not improving, so the government established a cost sharing and cost recovery model. In the cost sharing model, the government would cover part of the cost, but the remaining cost was the institutions and families responsibility. After this change, the student loan scheme was introduced. It was the responsibility of the Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) to pay out loans to Kenyan students that are interested in attending a higher education institution; there have been concerns that the loans are not being distributed equitably which has not fully improved the higher education access issues. Kenya has also explored the Module II admissions plan. In this plan, the admitted students must pay their full tuition fees but also pay an amount that is equivalent to attending a private institution. This has widened the accessibility gap for families of lower socioeconomic status as they will not be able to pay the amount of tuition, so higher education remains unaffordable and inaccessible for those students. [26]

Due to the current policies and financial requirements, educational access is limited to students who perform highly in academics and those who do not. If students are academically inclined and perform well in their primary and secondary education institutions, the educational fees and increasing tuition costs cause them to be unable to attend a higher education institution. Cost sharing has created an even larger gap in accessibility for students; continuing similar policies will keep creating a larger gap. [27]

There has been a recent focus on digital accessibility after the COVID-19 pandemic. In a study done by Githinji et al. (2022), there was a focus on the accessibility of digital content in Kenya. This was done at the higher education level. The study found that one of the major challenges in accessibility was the internet connectivity for both educators and students. In many areas in the country, there are not the necessary resources or funds to be able to purchase a device to access digital content.

Most universities in Kenya have a teacher training programme, and the B.Ed. programmes often have the most students compared to other programmes. Kenya's population is growing, which in turn means that the demand for teachers is growing; however, there is often a shortage of teachers due to budget issues in schools. There are four different levels of teacher education. Early childhood development teacher education, which is available as a certificate or 2-year diploma, requires 300 hours of teaching practice. Primary teacher education is a 2-year programme in which teachers-in-training practice teaching in four sessions of three weeks. A variety of subjects are studied. Diploma teacher education is a 3-year programme. Teacher trainees in this programme take a wide variety of subjects. The undergraduate bachelors programme is a 4-year programme; trainees study 2 different subjects. All teaching programmes require teaching practice in which a teacher trainee prepares for lessons and teaches the lesson while being assessed on their preparation and the teaching itself. Mentor teachers at the school work with administration and supervisors to assess the teacher trainee. One challenge to teacher education in Kenya is a lack of experienced teacher educators who have knowledge of both the content and pedagogy. Additionally, some of the teacher educators of primary programmes were themselves trained at the secondary level, so they do not possess the knowledge of primary education necessary. [30]

In 2003, the government launched the Free Primary Education programme (FPE), which abolished primary school fees for all children. Previously, school fees, uniform costs, and textbook costs were a substantial barrier to education for many, especially considering the rate of poverty and economic inequality in Kenya. The aim of FPE was to remove these barriers to education and ensure that more children with low socioeconomic status are able to access schooling. Despite the goals of FPE to improve equitable education for all, analysis of the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination scores showed that counties with high enrollment impact and improved KCPE scores were in the arid and semi-arid area, while counties with high enrollment impact and lower KCPE scores were in coastal areas. [31]

FPE led to an increased number of students who could attend school. It also led to an increase in the number of private schools, and it resulted in a larger teacher-student ratio in schools. Despite more students per teacher, researchers found that the implementation of FPE resulted in only slightly decreased test scores in those who would have finished primary school regardless of FPE. Overall, FPE succeeded in increasing access to primary school. [32]

In 2003 the Kenyan government promised free primary education to its citizens. In the early 70s primary school fees were abolished but in the mid 80s cost-sharing measures between the government and its citizens led to the re-introduction of minor fee charges by primary schools. As the trend continued with schools requiring parents to pay fees such as PTA, harambee, textbooks, uniforms, caution fees, exam fees and extracurricular activity fees, most parents became overburdened and unable to raise such fees. Those who could not afford the money to pay for their children's school fees often had their children drop out of school. Many children were also forced to drop out of school when teachers would not allow them to take exams. To pressurize parents to pay fees, schools often sent children home during the final exams.

The growth of Kenya's education sector has exceeded expectations. After the first university was established in 1970, six other public universities and 23 private universities have been established. Although Kenya has its own universities, some parents prefer to send their children to universities outside the country. This is largely because Kenyan public universities are not as flexible with admission requirements as some foreign universities. Another factor that has been pointed out is that youth with disabilities are facing major obstacles to progress in higher education, and measures as affirmative action or measures tailored to the needs of particular profiles of students could play a relevant role in this.[37]

In a 2020 study on literacy published in Early Education and Development, researchers found that mothers and fathers in Kenya do not spend much time reading and storytelling with their children. This may be explained by the low level of education attained by the mostly rural participants in the study; it could also be explained by the amount of time these families need to spend on subsistence activities. However, one-third of other household members did read to children living in the same household, which had a positive effect on early childhood literacy. [38]

• Aiducation
• Kenya National Examination Council
• List of universities and colleges in Kenya.
• List of schools in Kenya
• Gender disparities in Kenyan education
• National Library Service of Kenya
• TVET schools s in kenya

[26]

14. List of Primary Schools in Kenya

Kenyan State-institutions

• Ministry of Education website
• Commission of Higher Education – Kenya

Data & reports from external institution

• Education Statistics and Quality of Education in Kenya, Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ)
• CIA factbook, Kenya
• World Data on Education-Kenya, IBE(2010) – Overview and statistics of the Kenyan Education system
• Vocational Education in Kenya, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2012)- Overview of the vocational education and training system in Kenya
• https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000250431