Hossein Khan Sardar

Except for being held as a hostage in the center of Iran, there is no documented history of his youth. The first mention of him is in 1795, as a member of the household of his close friend, the crown prince Baba Khan (later known by his regnal name of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar) in the city of Shiraz. There he was an official who served as the yuzbashi ("head of the household slaves"). The assassination of Agha Mohammad Khan in Shusha in 1797 gave rise to a number of pretenders to the throne, Sadeq Khan Shaqaqi being the most significant. With the support of the Turkmens in the north, he marched towards the Iranian capital of Tehran. However, Baba Khan, being escorted by Hossein Qoli, arrived in Tehran first.[5]

After having assembled an army there, he appointed Hossein Qoli as its leader, and also gave him the title of khan.[5] Hossein Qoli subsequently helped Baba Khan become shah by defeating Sadeq Khan Shaqaqi in the battle of Qazvin. During the same year, Hossein Qoli suppressed a Zand rebellion caused by Muhammad Khan in the city of Isfahan. Following that, he defeated Nader Shah's grandson Nader Mirza, who was attempting to restore the power of the Afshars in the Khorasan province. By 1800, all the rivals of Fath-Ali Shah had been defeated by Hossein Qoli, and thus the position of the dynasty was safe.[5]

The traveller von Freygang, when describing Hossein Qoli, stated that "the khan by his boldness had raised the reigning Shah to the throne" and that "he enjoyed his master's full confidence". Fath-Ali Shah rewarded Hossein Qoli's commitment by not only giving him multiple tuyuls (land grants) but also by marrying his sister, giving his 29th daughter in marriage to Hossein Qoli's son Mohammadqoli, and asking one of Hossein Qoli's daughters to be the wife of his son and heir apparent, Abbas Mirza.[5][2] Hossein Qoli served as a guardian of the northern passageways to Tehran from Qazvin until 1802. During that year, Khorasan saw factional conflict once more, with small Afshar clans notably opposing the king. To put an end to the uprising, Fath-Ali Shah named Hossein Qoli as the province's governor. By putting the leaders in jail and blinding some of them under Fath Ali Shah's decree, Hossein Qoli was able to bring about stability over the course of five years.[6]

Hossein Qoli's status and popularity grew along with his income. He used a portion of that income to build mosques, caravansaries, and baths in the regions under his rule. He soon became one of the richest men in Iran as a result of his fortune. Some of his family members received promotions as well, such as his brother Hasan, who received his former office of yuzbashi.[6]

Within a short period of time, the Russian expansion replaced internal conflicts as the main threat to the throne.[6] War had erupted between Iran and Russia in 1804, when the Russians seized the city of Ganja, which had been governed by the Ganja Khanate of Iran.[7][8] Hossein Qoli was given a commission by Fath-Ali Shah in 1807 to defend the Caucasus from Russian encroachment and was given the title of sardar (commander-in-chief). Fath-Ali Shah had been powerless to stop the Russian progress in the Caucasus and had considered the khans in the Caucasus to be unreliable. In order to help the khan of Karabakh, Ibrahim Khalil Khan, who was under siege by a Russian army led by General Ivan Gudovich, Hossein Qoli rushed to the place. Being too late, Hossein Qoli instead marched towards Shirvan, where he attempted to thwart the attempt of its khan Mostafa Khan to cooperate with the Russians. He was unable to accomplish his goal there due to the presence of powerful Russian forces, and he was forced to flee towards Erivan.[6]

Map of the Erivan Khanate (yellow color) and its surroundings in c. 1800

It would be greatly difficult for the Russians to proceed into northern Iran if the Iranians were able to hold the region of Erivan, an important invasion route. Fath-Ali Shah appointed Hossein Qoli as its governor in the same year as a result of a number of Iranian defeats. He thought Hossein Qoli would be able to stop the Russian advance and build on his previous victories.[6] Despite being well recognized for its formidable walls, Erivan's stronghold was additionally fortified and supplied to survive a protracted siege. In 1808, Hossein Qoli was joined by his brother Hasan as support against the approaching Russian invasion by Gudovich, which the brothers successfully repelled.[9] Following their defeat, the Russians took some time before attempting another significant operation outside of Georgia. Gudovich, being cautious, refused to agree to yet another plan devised by his inexperienced officers. With the exception of Hosein Qoli's sporadic raids, all sides held their positions, a deadlock developed.[10]

In 1809, Britain and Iran made an alliance, with the British guaranteeing that until all Russian forces had left Iranian territory or peace was made, they would supply Iran with a 200,000 toman annual stipend as well as a sizeable amount of military hardware. Britain wanted to maintain Iran politically and economically stable so that India could use it as a stronghold of defense. Later, the defenses of Erivan was strengthened by British engineers and military experts, who also helped build the fortress of Sardarabad near Erivan, and Abbasabad in the Nakhichevan Khanate.[11]

As the focal point of offensive and defensive operations against Russian forces in the Southern Caucasus, the Erivan Khanate grew in importance. A strong Iranian stronghold was established in the area as a result of this and the nearby presence of the main Iranian army at Tabriz. Additionally, Russian resources were diverted to other fronts by the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, the French invasion of Russia, and the repeated clashes with Muslim tribes in Daghestan. As a result, the Erivan Khanate was not under immediate danger from Russia for almost twenty years.[12]

In response to the assistance offered by Sherif Pasha of Akhaltsikhe, Hossein Qoli was in August 1810 sent there as the head of a 7,000-man army with orders to assault Georgia via Shuregol. He had recruited members of the Karapapakh tribe while en route, increasing the size of his army to 10,000. He traveled to Akhalkalaki at the end of August, where he encountered the Georgian prince Alexander, who told him that the Georgians were prepared to make an uprising against Russia and were only awaiting the presence of the Iranian army. However, Hossein Qoli did not believe him, and thus waited for Sherif Pasha to arrive with his 17,000 soldiers. Hosein Qoli Khan told Abbas Mirza that he would go back to Erivan if Sherif Pasha did not appear before the weather would get cold.[13]

The Russian general Alexander Tormasov resolved to attack Hossein Qoli as soon as he realized Sherif Pasha had not mobilized his forces. The Russians unexpectedly attacked the Iranian camp on September 17 about three in the morning. The Iranians were taken by surprise and either fell into the fort's surrounding trench or ran into each other. Hossein Qoli and Prince Alexander left in their nightshirts amid the ensuing mayhem. After a three-hour fight, two khans and 700 men had been killed, whilst Esmail Khan and eleven begs were taken hostage. Many tents, horses, and other pieces of equipment were also taken by the Russians, while many horses were seized by the escaping Karapapakh tribesmen.[14]

In 1812, the Russians made peace with the Ottoman Empire, and with the withdrawal of French forces, men that were urgently required on the Caucasian front could be transferred. By 1813, the Russian armies were once more on the offensive and had won several battles. The British were now fighting alongside Russia against France, and thus stopped helping Iran, instead advising them to make peace with Russia.[15]

Fath-Ali Shah and Abbas Mirza were pressed to reach an agreement with Russia by the British diplomat Gore Ouseley, who in return promised to assist Iran diplomatically in regaining some of its lost territory beyond the Aras River in addition to continuing the subsidies and the arms supply. If the Iranians refused, he cautioned them that Britain would no longer help Iran in the future. Lacking other opinions, Iran agreed to make peace with Russia, signing the Treaty of Golestan in 1813, in which the Russians received the Iranian lands of Baku, Ganja, Shakki, Quba, Shirvan, Karabakh, and parts of Talish. Moreover, Iran also had to abandon its claims over Georgia.[16]

Russian entry into Erivan in 1827, painted by Franz Roubaud

Between July 28 and 30, the Russian army fought an intense battle against Hossein Qoli, who conquered Pambak and Shuregol in northern Erivan. Meanwhile, his brother Hasan made attacks further north, forcing the Russians to withdraw to Tiflis.[17] Between August 1 and 3, Bash Aparan was recovered by Hossein Qoli, who then started fighting the Russians at Gyumri.[18]

Hossein Qoli, in contrast to the other khans in the Caucasus, avoided making a deal with the Russians and was able to hinder their plans for twenty years. Article XII of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which specifically denied him and his brother the ability to sell or trade their property in Erivan—a right guaranteed to everyone else—was a clear indication of Russia's irritation.[2]

Hossein Qoli died in 1831 at the age of ninety. Iranian accounts state that he was respected by Fath-Ali Shah and died in good health. But according to Armenian and Western accounts, he died in an impoverished and depressed state in a stable.[2]