Dadaab

CARE Youth Centre in Dadaab.

The Dadaab camps Dagahaley, Hagadera and Ifo were constructed in 1992. In 2011 and 2013, two new refugee camps were opened when 164,000 new refugees from Somalia arrived, due to severe drought.[3][9] The Ifo II camp extension was originally constructed in 2007 by the Norwegian Refugee Council, in response to major flooding that destroyed over 2,000 homes in the Ifo refugee camp. However, legal problems with the Kenyan Government prevented Ifo II from fully opening for relocation, until 2011.[10] As of 13 May, Hagadera was the largest of the camps, containing just over 74,744 individuals and 17,490 households.[3] Ifo refugee camp, on the other hand, is the smallest camp with 65,974 refugees.[3] Former Kambioss and Ifo2 refugee camps were closed in April 2017 and May 2018, respectively.

Ifo camp was first settled by refugees from the civil war in Somalia. The UNHCR subsequently made efforts to improve the premises. As the population of the camps in Dadaab grew, UNHCR commissioned the German architect Werner Schellenberg to draw the original design for Dagahaley Camp, as well as the Swedish architect Per Iwansson, who designed and initiated the establishment of Hagadera camp.

Freshly-dug graves for child victims of the 2011 East Africa drought, Dadaab

People first began arriving at the Dadaab complex shortly after its construction in 1992, with most escaping the Somali Civil War.[11] When refugees arrive at the camp, they are registered and fingerprinted by the Kenyan government.[12] However, the camps themselves are managed by the UNHCR, with other organizations directly in charge of specific aspects of the resident' lives. CARE oversees Water and Sanitation Hygiene as well as warehouse management and the World Food Programme (WFP) distributes food rations. Until 2003, only Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) provided refugees with access to health-care. Now, healthcare is decentralized. Kenya Red Cross Society (KRCS) provides health care services in ifo refugee camp, International Rescue committee (IRC) in Hagadera and Medicins Sans Frontieres in Dagahley refugee camp. Although refugees arriving at Dadaab receive assistance from each of these organizations, aid is often not immediate due to overcrowding.[13] Other relief organizations include Danish Refugee Agency (DRC), Norwegian Refugee Agency (NRC), Windle International, Lutheran World Federation, Center for Victims of Torture, In July 2011, due to a drought in Eastern Africa, over 1,000 people per day were arriving in need of assistance.[14] The influx reportedly placed great strain on the resources, as the capacity of the camps was around 90,000, whereas the camps hosted 439,000 refugees in July 2011 according to the UNHCR.[15] The number was predicted to increase to 500,000 by the end of 2011 according to estimates from Médecins Sans Frontières. Those population figures at the time made Dadaab the largest refugee camp in the world.[16] According to the Lutheran World Federation, military operations in the conflict zones of southern Somalia and a scaling up of relief operations had by early December 2011 greatly reduced the movement of migrants into Dadaab.[17]

An outdoor school in Dadaab

According to the Kenya Commissioner for Refugees, when migrants first began arriving in Dadaab town from Somalia, they were all educated.[11] An assessment survey completed in 2011 found that access to education in Dadaab was considerably limited, restricting the ability of refugees at the centre to find jobs and become less reliant on aid organizations. Dadaab had only one secondary school; those who managed to be educated there could receive jobs working for aid agencies such as CARE, WFP, or GTZ that distribute resources to refugees. Those who were uneducated could pursue jobs in restaurants or helping load and unload trucks. Many chose other modes of subsistence. In 2011, only around 48% of children in Dadaab were enrolled in school.[27]

In response, the Ministry of Education of Somalia announced that all high school students at the centre who were Somali citizens would be eligible for higher education scholarships.[36] To further improve the education standards, a new European Union-funded project was launched in 2013. The initiative was earmarked for three years, with $4.6 million allocated toward its syllabus. It included new classrooms for all local schools, adult programs, girls' special education, and scholarships for elite students based on merit. 75% of the funds were set aside for refugees at the complex, and 25% were reserved for local constituencies in Lagdera and Fafi.[37]

UNHCR packages containing emergency flood supplies.

The German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) provides basic health-care.[9] On a typical day, around 1,800 refugees get outpatient treatment in hospitals inside the camps.[38] Since 2015, Dadaab has had the largest solar-powered borehole in Africa, which is equipped with 278 solar panels and provides 16,000 residents of the complex with a daily average of about 280,000 litres of water.[39]

Local health risks are complicated by overcrowding. They include diarrhea, pulmonary issues, fever, measles, acute jaundice syndrome, and cholera.[40][41] Hepatitis E is also a potential issue, as the premises often have substandard sanitary facilities and unclean water.[40]

One reason refugees arrive at the camps is displacement caused by natural disasters. By the end of 2011, more than 25% of residents at the complex had come as a result of a drought in Eastern Africa.[40] Individuals arriving under these conditions were already malnourished, and once at the camps they could experience additional food scarcity.[13] Although malnutrition is a contributing factor to high death rates among children, it has been observed that life expectancy at the complex is positively correlated with years of inhabitation.[41]

Refugees receive food rations containing cereal, legumes, oil, and sugar from the World Food Programme (WFP).[42] Due to overcrowding and lack of resources, they are not eligible for their initial rations until 12 days after arrival, on average.[13] The rations are generally first distributed to children under the age of five because they are at the greatest health risk.[12] Markets at each of the camps have fresh food for sale. However, due to limited income opportunities, most residents are unable to afford them.[42] Some have used innovations such as multi-storey gardens to supplement rations. These require only basic supplies to construct and less water to maintain than normal gardens.[43]

UN vehicle travelling in the arid Dadaab area.

Deforestation has an effect on the lives of Dadaab's residents.[44] Although they are typically required to remain in the camp, residents often have to venture out in search of firewood and water. They are thus obliged to travel farther due to deforestation in nearby areas.[44] This leaves women and girls vulnerable to violence as they journey to and from the complex.[44]

In 2006, flooding severely affected the region. More than 2,000 homes at the Ifo camp were destroyed, forcing the relocation of more than 10,000 refugees. The sole access road to the camp and to the town was also cut off by the floods, impeding the delivery of essential supplies. Humanitarian agencies present in the area worked together to bring vital goods to the area.[45][46]

In 2011, a drought in Eastern Africa caused a dramatic surge in the camps' population, placing greater strain on resources.[47] By February 2012, aid agencies had shifted their emphasis to recovery efforts, including digging irrigation canals and distributing plant seeds.[48] Long-term strategies by national governments in conjunction with development agencies are believed to offer the most sustainable results.[49] Rainfall had also surpassed expectations and rivers were flowing again, improving the prospects of a good harvest in early 2012.[50]

New arrivals wait to get processed

Refugees at the UNHCR centre are not protected by the Government of Kenya (GOK). This has contributed to dangerous living conditions and outbreaks of violence.[51] Because they are not protected under the law and are unable to possess a Kenyan national identification card, refugees are constantly at risk for arrest.[27][51] Additionally, the Kenyan government screens ethnic Somalis and Ethiopians separately from other residents due to their different physical characteristics. A special category in local police documents is earmarked for "Kenyan-Somalis".[52]

While all refugees at the camp are at risk of violence, the UNHCR and CARE have identified women and children as being particularly vulnerable.[53] They have created a department called 'Vulnerable Women and Children' (VWC) to tackle the issues surrounding violence against these populations.[53] As of August 2015, 60% of Dadaab's total population is under the age of 18, and there are equal numbers of men and women, so women and children make up a significant portion of the camps' demographics.[3] Specifically, the VWC department has identified orphans, widows, divorcees, rape victims and the disabled as the most vulnerable among all women and children.[53] They offer counselling, additional food rations and supplies, and advice on how to earn an income and be financially self-sufficient.[53] However, the effectiveness of these efforts has been questioned, and following an analysis by Dr. Aubone at St. Mary's University, more research and data is required to identify the best ways to prevent gender-based violence at the complex.[54]

Downtown Dadaab

Operations at the complex are financed by foreign donors.[7] Despite this, public perception in Kenya is that refugees in general cause a strain on the economy. Research, however, has found that many refugees are economically self-sufficient for the most part.[32][51]

In order to try to further increase the economic independence of refugees living in Dadaab, CARE has initiated microfinance programs, which are particularly important for encouraging women to start their own businesses.[55] However, recent scholarly research has identified some flaws with microfinance, arguing that it has unintended negative consequences.[56] Microfinance typically requires borrowers to pay very high interest rates, which can be detrimental to the poorest if any unexpected problems or crises arise.[56] Living in a community with other economically disadvantaged individuals can also make it difficult to make a profit from a business venture since potential customers are not able to afford the service or product that is being sold.[57] Others have argued that this is beneficial to individuals as a short-term economic solution, but that over the long-term it does not improve the economy as a whole.[58] CARE is also working to create more inclusive markets that refugees are able to participate in to profit off of their newly acquired skills and business ventures.[55]