Jabala ibn al-Ayham

There are no contemporary sources about Jabala, with the narratives of his life derived from Abbasid-era (post-750 CE) literature. However, a seal dated to the late 6th or early 7th century inscribed with the words 'Gabala, patrikios' next to etches of Christian crosses has led to speculative identification with Jabala ibn al-Ayham by the historian Irfan Shahid.[1]

In the stories of Jabala in the Islamic literature, he is figured as the last Ghassanid king and a military leader of the Byzantine Empire's Christian Arab contingent during the Muslim conquest of Syria. He is cited in such a capacity during the siege of Dumat al-Jandal in c. 630, where he commands the Ghassanids and Tanukhid tribes against the Muslims, at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, during which the Muslim Arabs routed the Byzantines and went on to conquer Syria from them.[1] According to the Abbasid-era authors Ibn Ishaq, al-Waqidi, and al-Baladhuri, in Yarmouk, Jabala led 12,000 men of the Ghassanids and the other Christian tribes of Lakhm, Judham, and groups of the Quda'a tribe, such as the Balqayn and Bali.[2]

The Islamic literature abounds with stories of Jabala's conversion to Islam sometime after Yarmouk, then leaving Islam and taking refuge under Emperor Heraclius. There are different versions of the stories, but they generally have Jabala arrive to the Muslim capital at Medina with his entourage, set off for the Hajj pilgrimage with Caliph Umar, have an altercation with a lowly pilgrim whose nose he ultimately breaks, threaten to leave Islam, and finally make a nightly escape which ends with his relocation to Byzantine territory.[1]

Jabala's flight to Byzantium supposedly occurred in c. 639 and he made the trek through Raqqa (Byzantine Callinicum) with tens of thousands of his or allied Christian Arab tribesmen, thereafter taking abode in the Khersana region of Byzantine Anatolia. The geographer al-Istakhri mentions the descendants of these tribesmen in that region during the 10th century. According to the historian Walter Kaegi, the purported flight of so many Arab tribesmen was a motivating factor for the Muslims to conquer Raqqa and Upper Mesopotamia in general, so as to prevent such nomadic exodus from the conquered lands to Byzantium; such exodus contravened caliph Umar's policy of subjugating all nomadic Arab tribes under the Caliphate's rule.[3]

Before the Battle of Yarmuk, Jabala attempted to negotiate terms, warning the Muslims against fighting the combined forces of the Romans. He invited them to keep all their war booty on the condition that they withdraw to Arabia, but was rebuffed by Ubada ibn al-Samit, who said “Our fighters and heroes see death as gain and life as burdensome.” Ubada informed Jabala that his tribe must either embrace Islam or pay jizya, or else face battle. A later delegation was sent to the chief, stating that if he converted, he would be honored by the Muslims due to his Arab lineage. Jabala again refused. The emissaries then asked him to abstain from fighting and base his decision on whether to convert to Islam on the battle’s outcome. Again he refused. The delegation threatened to crush his skull; Jabala was infuriated and declared he would fight for Rome.[4][5]

Shahid considers the existence of Jabala as possible "evidence" for the Byzantines' revival of the Ghassanid phylarchate following its destruction during the Sasanian Persian invasion of Byzantine Syria in 614.[6] In the view of historian Julia Bray, Jabala's references in the Islamic literature represents "the archetype" of the bygone era "of jahiliyya, Christianity, and kingship" in Arab history, and the transition to the new Islamic era.[1] The historian Greg Fisher assesses Jabala as "a semi-mythical figure" used in the literature to "test the purity of the new [Muslim] faith, celebrate the greatness of the empire that the muhajirun [Muslim conquerors] supplanted, and serve all kinds of other useful literary and rhetorical purposes".[1]

• Donner, Fred M. (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05327-8.
• Fisher, Greg (2020). "Arab Statesmen in the Sixth Century". Rome, Persia, and Arabia: Shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad. Abingdon and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780429356483.
• Kaegi, Walter E. (1995). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41172-6.
• Shahid, I. (1965). "Djabala b. al-Ayham". In Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Volume II: C–G (2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 354. OCLC 495469475.

• Bray, Julia (2005). "Abbasid Myth and the Human Act: Ibn 'Abd Rabbih and Others". In Kennedy, Philip F. (ed.). On Fiction and Adab in Medieval Arabic Literature. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1–50. ISBN 3-447-05182-5.