James F. Redmond

Early into his tenure in New Orleans, the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision saw the Supreme Court of the United States order school districts to cease racial segregation in their schools.[12] Some anticipated that New Orleans could lead the nation in peaceful desegregation, as the city had seen relative racial harmony, was less residentially segregated than most American cities, had added African-Americans to its police force, and had desegregated its public libraries, its buses, and its recreational facilities.[13] There was a very strong sentiment in New Orleans against racial integration of schools.[14] In February 1959, an article in The New Republic brought to many people's atention that no organized effort had arisen to integrate the schools in New Orleans.[13] After this, some activists organized to form the group Save Our Schools, Inc. to support integration.[15] Redmond would ultimately implement integration in New Orleans,[16] but not without first fighting it.

A local lawsuit (Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board) was filed in 1956 in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana. Judge J. Skelly Wright, on February 15, 1956, enjoined the Orleans school board from requiring and permitting racial segregation, directing them to, "make arrangements for admission of children...on a racially nondiscriminatory basis with all deliberate speed".[17] Redmond decided that it was necessary to mount a vigorous legal battle against desegregation.[18] Between 1956 and 1959, the school district pursued cases which made it to the United States Court of Appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States, both of which upheld Judge Wright's decision.[18]

On July 15, 1959, Judge Wright ordered that the Orleans Parish School Board to file a desegregation plan by March 1, 1960, later extending the date May 16, 1960 at the board's request.[19] On May 16, 1960, the board told the court that it had no desegregation plan, and Judge Wright provided them with a plan of his own which ordered the desegregation of all first grades at the start of the new school year that September. On August 31, 1960, members of the school board requested a delay in integration to allow more time to prepare a plan, which was granted, moving the slated date of the start of desegregation to November 14, 1960.[20] Redmond thereafter prepared a plan, which he presented to Judge Wright, who approved the plan and ordered Redmond and the school board to implement it.[20] The plan was designed to put some African-American children in White schools. [20] There was pressure by outside individuals and some members of the school board to convince Redmond and the rest of the school board to look for schools where White parents and students would be more accepting of African-American students, as well as find African-American students who would best fit in at White schools. They rejected this suggestion, arguing that it would be too subjective a criteria, and opting instead to use a "scientific" method which instead wound up choosing the schools which appeared most ill-welcoming of integration.[20] On September 26, 1960, the school board formally announced their integration plan.[20] To delay the integration of the schools even further, Redmond ordered the principals of the two integrated public schools to close their schools on November 14, 1960, providing Governor of Louisiana Jimmie Davis and the Louisiana State Legislature with time to propose 30 bills that would make integration illegal, even though Wright had already declared most of the bills unconstitutional. This triggered the New Orleans school desegregation crisis. Less than 24 hours later, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled all 30 bills unconstitutional. On November 14, the school system was officially desegregated.[21] On November 15, 1960 in a special session, the Louisiana State Legislature took numerous actions to try to prevent the school board from pursuing integration, including attempting dismantle the school board, and fire Redmond.[22] The State Legislature would try seven times to fire Redmond, each time having federal district courts invalidate these firings.[23]

Redmond, upon assuming the office of superintendent in October 1966, faced challenges preparing the 1967 budget. Additionally, he had to address a $5 million deficit in the 1966 budget.[31]

Redmond and the Chicago Board of Education needed to negotiate annual contracts with the Chicago Teachers Union. A recurrent issue was the school district lacking sufficient funds to meet the demands of the union. The Chicago Board of Education found its self regularly requesting additional funding from the state of Illinois.[32] Multiple times, Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley intervened in the process, to Redmond's chagrin. Daley would give the Union what they wanted, and promise he would help the Chicago Board of Education receive additional funding. Daley would not always be follow through on his promises of additional funding, however.[33]

Redmond, after taking office, worked on contract negotiations for the following year's contract with the Chicago Teachers Union.[34] A teachers' strike nearly occurred, but was averted after Mayor Daley helped reach a deal for a new contract.[35] Daley intervened again in 1968 following year to reach another contract and avert a strike.[36][37]

Between late 1968 and early 1969, Redmond again contracted a negotiated a contract with the union.[38] An interim, agreement was reached in January 1969, while negotiations continued.[39] Amid stalled negotiations, the first-ever teachers' strike in the city's history was initiated on May 22, 1969, with almost 18,600 teachers participating.[40] The strike ended May 26, 1969, after intervention by Mayor Daley and Governor of Illinois Richard B. Ogilvie succeeded in reaching an agreement.[41] However, by the middle of the summer of 1969, it became evident that the Chicago Board of Education would struggle to financially hold its contractual obligations.[42] A union's representative body initially voted to hold a strike.[43] On August 28, 1969, due to new money being made available, the Chicago Board of Education agreed that it would implement it 1969 contract to a degree that satisfied the union, averting a second strike.[43]

In 1970, contract negotiations for the following year were far less difficult. Budget cuts in other areas were made to meet the union's demands.[44] During negotiations for the 1972 contract, a teachers' strike was threatened numerous times.[45]

Negotiations for the 1973 contract led to a sixteen day strike in January 1973.[46]

Since the Chicago Board of Education was realigning its fiscal year to align with the school year, the 1974 contract was only for eight months, and was agreed to without the threat of a strike.[47] The contract for the 1974–75 school year also occurred without the threat of a strike.[48]

After prompting from the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in January 1967,[30][49] Redmond developed a document titled Increasing Desegregation of Faculties, Students, and Vocational Education Programs. This document, most commonly referred to as "The Redmond Plan", was accepted "in principle" by the Chicago Board of Education on August 23, 1967 by a 10–0 vote (with one abstention).[49]

The plan saw mixed public reception. The plan was praised by the editorial board of the Chicago Sun-Times, who hailed it as, "an educational Burnham Plan for Chicago, a proposal for experimentation and innovation in keeping with the needs of modern urban living." The editorial board of the Chicago Tribune, contrarily, rejected the proposal's ideas.[50]

In August 1968, Redmond testified before the Illinois Senate that he believed desegregation busing to be vital to increase integration in the city's schools. He also told the subcommittee he was testifying before that he believed that integration was "imperative", declaring, "we live in a multicultural and multi-racial society, and if we are to ease tensions, it is imperative that a course of integration be followed."[51]

Redmond decided to employ the creation magnet schools in the district as a means to provide a short-term partial remedy to segregation in the district. The first of these magnet schools Robert Black Elementary, began teaching students in September 1968.[30]

In 1975, Redmond retired, stepping down as superintendent. A Chicago Tribune article declared that his departure occurred, "amid charges from many quarters that Chicago's public schools failed under his administration."[16]

• Reilly, John P. (1991). "James F. Redmond: An Urban Superintendent's Response to Selected Challenges (1966-1975)". Loyola University Chicago. Retrieved October 29, 2021.
• Stringfellow, Christina Hawkins (1991). "Desegregation Policies and Practices in Chicago During the Superintendencies of James Redmond and Joseph Hannon". Loyola University Chicago. Retrieved April 1, 2023.
• Wieder, Alan (1987). "The New Orleans School Crisis of 1960: Causes and Consequences". Phylon (1960-). 48 (2): 122–131. doi:10.2307/274776. ISSN 0031-8906. Retrieved 1 April 2023.