Kashmir Sultanate

Numerous attempts had been made to conquer Kashmir first by the Arabs in the 7th and 8th century and then by the Turks in the 11th century[2] but it was not until the reigns of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor that Kashmir looked out to serious threats of invasion.[3][4] It was at this time that Turkic and Tajik traders entered Kashmir and were allowed to serve in the Lohara army.[5] With the Hindu emperors weakened, Kashmir became a subject to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.[6] Unable to fend off the invasions this time, Kashmir became a Mongol dependency some time after 1235.[7] In 1320, a Mongol commander, Zulju, with an army of Qara'unas, entered Kashmir and, after all types of atrocities and violence,[8][6] left the valley with the loot. As Emperor Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar, the valley passed on to the hands of local chiefs who asserted independence.[9][10] The most prominent of them were Ramacandra, the commander-in-chief of Suhadeva, and Rinchan Bhoti, a Ladakhi Buddhist noble, who left Ladakh after his father, a Ladakhi chief, was killed by the Baltis.[11] Rinchan, who founded no one more powerful than him after he had killed Ramacandra in a surprise attack, ascended the throne as Rinchan Shah.[12]

The first challenge faced by Rinchan was to gain the trust of the public and of the nobles.[13] For that, he released Ramacandra's son, Rawancandra, and his family and granted him the title of Raina (Lord) with some jagirs. He also appointed him his Mir Bakhshi (Commander-in-Chief) and married his sister, Kota Rani, who had previously been the Empress consort of Suhadeva.[14][15] After suppressing this provocation, Rinchan faced Suhadeva, who had returned to the valley after Zulju's departure. He tried to subdue the people against Rinchan but was repulsed as the people still remembered his betrayal.[16][17] Soon after these events, the Lavanyas, a feudal tribe, challenged Rinchan but were defeated and forced to acknowledge him.[18]

The Emperor always had a coucil of cultured men and artisans in his court along with Muslim scholars and Hindu and Buddhist priests.[19] With an elusive yet sharp mind, Rinchan later in the same year in the hands of Bulbul Shah and adopted the title of Sultan Sadr'ud-Din, becoming the first Sultan of Kashmir.[20][21] Rawancandra also accepted Islam and became a close associate of the Sultan.[22] Shah Mir, a Turkish migrant from Swat who settled in Kashmir in 1313 with his family, also entered the government of the Sultan and was a trusted councillor of the Sultan.[23] He even appointed him as the tutor of his son Haidar.[24][25] Sultan Sadr'ud-Din faced a surprise attack by Tukka, his former Vizier, and his followers. The preparators left a serious wound on the Sultan's head in between the struggle[26] but was rescued by his Vizier, Vyalaraja. The Sultan took the enemies by surprise and executed them. He also ripped open the wombs of their wives by the sword.[27]

Unluckily, the wound on the Sultan's head proved fatal, and he died in 1323.[26] He was buried near the Mosque he had built in Srinagar. After the Sultan's demise, Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was called back from Swat to claim the throne on the orders of Kota Rani and the consent of Shah Mir and other nobles as Haidar was still a minor.[28][29]

The rule of Udayanadeva lasted until his death in 1338 and was succeeded by his wife Kota Rani.[30][31] Shah Mir, in the meantime, strengthened his position in the cabinet of Udayanadeva.[32][29] Kota Rani appointed Bhatta Bhiksana, a powerful minister, as her Prime Minister, ignoring Shah Mir. She also moved her capital to Andarkot as Srinagar was, at that time, Shah Mir's stronghold.[33][34] This angered Shah Mir, who, at once, marched against her. Through a conspiracy, he assassinated Bhiksana and threatened Kota Rani to surrender and marry him.[35] Kota Rani, after seeing her troops and chiefs deserting her, reluctantly agreed. Shah Mir, at first, married her but, seeing the support she had in the kingdom, threw her and her children in prison while he himself ascended the throne as Sultan Shamsu'd-Din Shah.[36][37]

With the behest of the new rule, a new era, namely, the Kashmiri era, replaced the old Laukika era established by the Hindu Emperors.[38] Shamsu'd-Din set up Islamic roots in the early stages of the Sultanate,[39][40] appointing Muslim converts from Chak and Magre clan to major posts in the government.[41] After his death in 1342, the Sultanate passed on to Shamsu'd-Din's sons, Jamshid and Ali Sher.[42][43]