Curb

Pedestrian area separated from carriageway by six bollards in front of the East India House in London, 1766

Although curbs have been used throughout modern history, and indeed were present in ancient Pompeii,[1] their widespread construction and use only began in the 18th century, as a part of the various movements towards city beautification that were attempted in the period.[2]

A series of Paving Acts in the 18th century, especially the 1766 Paving and Lighting Act, authorized the City of London Corporation to create footways along the streets of London, pave them with Purbeck stone (the thoroughfare in the middle was generally cobblestone) and raise them above street level with curbs forming the separation. The corporation was also made responsible for the regular upkeep of the roads, including their cleaning and repair, for which they charged a tax from 1766.[3]

Previously, small wooden bollards had been put up to demarcate the area of the street reserved for pedestrian use. By the late 18th century, this method of separating pedestrians from carriageways had largely been supplanted by the use of curbs. With the introduction of macadam roads in the early 19th-century, curbs became ubiquitous in the streets of London.[4]

Curbs present an obstacle for accessibility to physically disabled persons in public spaces.[5] In 1945, Jack Fisher of Kalamazoo, Michigan, celebrated the installation of one of the nation's first curb cuts to facilitate mobility in the center of the city.[5] In the United States, activism and passage of federal legislation on accessibility requirements such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) have facilitated travel for wheelchair users and other people.[5]

A modern curb, gutter, storm drain, and an accessibility ramp between roadway and pedestrian sidewalk

A high curb designed for boarding transit vehicles

Curbs may fulfill any or several of a number of functions.[6] By delineating the edge of the pavement, they separate the road from the roadside and discourage drivers from parking or driving on sidewalks and lawns. They also provide structural support to the pavement edge. Curbs can be used to channel runoff water from rain or melted snow and ice into storm drains.

There is also an aesthetic aspect, in that curbs look formal and "finished".

Since curbs add to the cost of a road, they are generally limited to urban and suburban areas and are rarely found in rural areas except where certain drainage conditions (such as mountains or culverts) make them necessary. Curbs are not universally used, however, even in urban settings (see living street).

In low-speed environments, curbs are effective at channeling motor vehicle traffic and can provide some redirective capacity for low-speed impacts.[6]

On higher speed roads, the main function of curbs is to provide drainage, and they are mostly used in areas of a bridge approach or other locations with erosion risk.[6]

A high-speed vehicle that hits a curb may actually turn towards the sidewalk, rather than be directed away from it.[6] A vehicle that strikes a curb can also be tripped into a rollover crash or vaulted into the air.[7] The vehicle could be vaulted over a traffic barrier into the object the barrier is intended to shield. This is a reason why they are rarely used on rural or high-speed roads. Where a curb is used with a traffic barrier, the barrier should either be close to or well behind the curb, to reduce the chances of a vehicle going over the barrier.[8]

Depending on the area and the distance between the travel lane and the edge of the pavement, an edge line can be used to indicate the outside (shoulder) edge of the road. Retroreflective road marking material can also be applied to the curb itself to make it more conspicuous.

Curbs are also meant to inform pedestrians to stop or slow down as they prepare to cross roadways.[9] For example, cultural context and behavioral norms of a society may affect safety in that people are more likely to cross on a red light while standing alone than waiting with others at the curb.[9]

Old sidewalk with granite curb in Kutná Hora

Modern use of stone curbs, cobblestone, and planters as bollards to separate vehicles from pedestrians in Warsaw

There are a number of types of curbs, categorized by shape, material, height, and whether the curb is combined with a gutter. Most curb is constructed separately from the pavement, and the gutter is formed at the joint between the roadway and the curb. The combined curb and gutter (also called "curb and channel") has a concrete curb and gutter cast together in one piece. "Integral curb" is curbing constructed integrally as a part of the concrete pavement.

Material

Metal forms before the concrete is poured and finished by hand

Hand forming at catch basins

Curbs are constructed of many materials, including asphalt, stone, or masonry blocks, but most often are made of Portland cement concrete. The type of material may depend on the type of paving material used for the road and the desired function or need. For example, a Portland concrete curb used with an asphalt concrete road surface provides a highly visible barrier at the edge of the road surface. Other types of curb material include stone slabs, cobblestone, and manufactured pavers.

A concrete curb may be constructed by setting forms by hand, filling them, letting them set up, and then removing the forms. When large quantities of curb are to be constructed, it is often more efficient to use a slip form casting machine. Curbs can also be precast at a central location and trucked to the construction site.

Asphalt curb is usually made with a paving machine. It can be cheaper if it is formed at the same time that a road is paved, but is less durable than a concrete curb.

Stone curb, often made from granite, is durable and resistant to de-icing salt. It is also chosen for aesthetic reasons. In areas where granite is available, it may be cheaper than concrete curb.[13] One disadvantage of granite curb is that it can cut a tire sidewall if it is rough-faced.[14]

Belgian block curbs are made by placing blocks over a concrete slip. Then, more concrete is wedged in between the blocks to hold them together. These blocks can be vertical or angled in order to create a mountable curb.

Height

This machine slip casts a concrete curb with integral gutter

When designing a curbed roadway, engineers specify the "reveal" or "lip". The reveal is the height of the section that is visible (revealed) above the road surface. Typical reveals are in the 4 to 8 inches (100 to 200 mm) range. Curbs at handicapped curb cuts (or "kerb ramps", for example in Australia) should have no reveal.[15] One of the recommendations has been using a 4/12 batter in to accommodate automobile design because steeper batters tend to interfere with body trim, hubcaps, and lower door edges while curb faces in excess of 6 in (152 mm) in height may prevent the full opening of car doors.[10] Most curb extends down into the ground below the pavement surface, to improve their stability over time. The total height, including the buried portion, is often 16 in (406 mm).[16]

Paint

Blue curb marking

Curbs are in some places painted to increase visibility or mark a special street side.

Curbs at the Suzuka International Racing Course

In auto racing, curbs are flat curbstones lining the corners or chicanes of racing tracks.[18] They are often painted red and white, and are intended to prevent unauthorized short-cuts and keep the racers safely on the track. Although they are not considered part of the racing track,[19] drivers sometimes "ride the curbs" in order to maintain momentum and gain a time advantage in cornering.[18]

In certain parts of the world, curb design signifies cultural association. For example, in countries of the former Portuguese Empire, such as Brazil, curbs are often distinctively decorated (along with the footpaths more broadly) in a style known as Portuguese pavement, marking a clear link to Portugal, where the style originated. More explicitly, curbstones can be painted (by official sanction or otherwise) to stress an identity or ideology; for instance, in Northern Ireland, curbstones are frequently painted in communities to identify a religious/political affiliation – typically either red, white, and blue for Unionist/Loyalist areas, and green, white, and orange for Nationalist areas.[20][21]