In 1985, Seymour Papert, Mitchel Resnick and Stephen Ocko created a company called Microworlds with the intent of developing a construction kit that could be animated by computers for educational purposes.[3]^: 14 Papert had previously created the Logo programming language as a tool to "support the development of new ways of thinking and learning",[4]^: xiv and employed "Turtle" robots to physically act out the programs in the real world.[4]^: 55–56 As the types of programs created were limited by the shape of the Turtle, the idea came up to make a construction kit that could use Logo commands to animate a creation of the learner's own design.[5]^: 3 Similar to the "floor turtle" robots used to demonstrate Logo commands in the real world, a construction system that ran Logo commands would also demonstrate them in the real world, but allowing the child to construct their own creations benefitted the learning experience by putting them in control [6] In considering which construction system to partner with, they wanted a "low floor high ceiling" approach, something that was easy to pick up but very powerful. To this end, they decided to use Lego bricks due to the system and diversity of pieces, and the Logo language due to the groups familiarity with the software and its ease of use.[3]^: 14 Lego was receptive to collaboration, particularly because its educational division had founding goals very similar to those of the Microworlds company. The collaboration very quickly moved to the newly minted MIT Media lab, where there was an open sharing of ideas.[3]^: 14 As a sponsor of the entire lab, Lego was allowed royalty free rights to mass-produce any technology produced by Papert, Resnick and Ocko's group; and was also allowed to send an employee over to assist with research, so they sent engineer Alan Tofte (also spelled Toft) who helped with the design of the programmable brick.[3]^: 35[7]^: 74 As another part of the MIT Media Lab was community outreach, so the bricks would be used working with children in schools for both research and educational purposes.

The first experiments of combining Lego and the Logo programming language was called Lego/Logo and it started in 1985.[6] Similar to the "floor turtles" used to demonstrate Logo commands in the real world, Lego/Logo used Logo commands to animate Lego creations. It is important that children could build their own machines to program, as they would then care more about their projects and be more willing to explore the mathematical concepts involved in making them move. The Lego/Logo system allowed children to create their own designs and experiments, offered multiple paths for learning and encouraged a sense of community. First, machines are built out Lego. The machines are then connected to a computer and programmed in a modified version of Logo. The Lego/Logo system introduced new types of parts for making creations such as: motors, sensors and lights. The motors and sensors are connected to an interface box which is communicates with a computer.[6] Lego/Logo would later be commercialized by the Lego group as the (Lego) Technic Control Center.[5]^: 3 It was observed that using the Lego/Logo system, children developed a form of knowledge about the physical world that allowed those even without mathematics or verbal skills to solve problems effectively using the system.[7]^: 23

While Lego/Logo was powerful, it was restricted somewhat by the requirement to have the creations attached to a computer.[5]^: 3 The group began working on further iterations of the Lego/Logo environment to produce a robot that could interact not only with the environment but with other robots programmed in the same system.[7]^: 24 The experiments with an untethered brick (called the Logo Brick or "Grey Brick") began in the fall of 1986. To speed up the design process, the Logo Brick contained the processor chip from an Apple II computer. It ran an adapted version of Lego/Logo written for the Apple II computer.[7]^: 74 The Lego/Logo interface box, The previous development of the group, had only two sensor ports available, which the design team observed were not always enough. To address this, they gave the Logo Brick four sensor ports. The Logo Brick was made out of a modified Lego battery box and was about the size of a deck of cards.[7]^: 74, 23 The Logo Brick was tested in schools.

Lego had been interested in mass-producing the programmable brick concept since the early 1980s, but at the time this was considered unfeasible. by the mid 1990s personal computers were relatively common in households and the components required to produce the intelligent brick went down in price, making mass production feasable.[3]^: 25. Development on what would later be known as the Robotics Invention System was handled by the newly created home-learning division of Lego Education (Lego Dacta), as the flagship product of the Lego Mindstorms brand. Name "Mindstorms" was intended to express the user experience of the product, it is named after Papert's book Mindstorms, as the user experience was similar to the educational constructivism concepts described in his book.[8]

The project's at-first low profile allowed the Mindstorms team the freedom to develop the product using operating procedures then-unorthodox to the Lego Group.[9]^: 1062 Unlike traditional Lego sets, the Mindstorms Robotics Invention System did not have a main model, nor was the play driven by storytelling. To bridge the gap between this new play experience and pre-existing Lego ones, the Mindstorms team created a lot of opportunities for people interested in the product to engage with each other, such as the creation of Mindstorms.com, Mindstorms Discovery Centers, and the FIRST Lego League.[8] The creation of these experiences was done through partnerships with a relatively large amount of external groups that the Mindstorms team interacted with as equal partners, something that was uncommon for the Lego group at the time.[9]^: 1063 To ease tensions between Mindstorms and more conventional products, the project team was given autonomy from Lego's product development process and instead reported directly to the company's senior management.[9]^: 1064

MIT Media Lab's "Red Brick" served as the prototype for Lego Mindstorms' RCX

The Lego Mindstorms team used the insights that MIT researchers discovered from testing the 3rd Generation Logo Brick ("Red Brick") in schools as the basis for the development of the mass-produced programmable brick.[5]^: 5 The physical programmable brick was re-engineered from the ground up, as the experimental programmable bricks were not designed for robustness or cost-effective manufacturing.[3]^: 19, 26 The programming language of the product was developed with help from members of the MIT Media lab. Lego decided to use a Visual programming language for Mindstorms, inspired by the LOGOBlocks language previously used with programmable brick experiments, in order to make the product accessible to children who might be unfamiliar with programming.[3]^: 29 While the technology that Mindstorms was based on was aimed towards "all children", the chosen target demographic of Lego Mindstorms was intentionally narrow, in order to garner positive press by outselling expectations. The decision was made to aim the product towards 10 to 14-year-old boys, partly because it was Lego's main target demographic, and partly based on market research (not substantiated by the findings of the MIT Media Lab) which concluded that this demographic would be most attracted to computerized toys. This choice of target demographic directly informed the color of the RCX brick (which was made yellow and black to resemble construction equipment) and the sample uses for the Mindstorms kit (such as making autonomous robots).[3]^: 28

Promotion of the Lego Mindstorms Robotics Invention System began 6 months before the product was planned to launch.[8] The product was first soft launched with the opening of the Mindstorms Discovery Center at the Museum of Science and Industry, where children could interact with the Mindstorms Robotics Invention System to complete set tasks, getting them familiar with the product.[10] The Mindstorms product was launched concurrently with Lego Cybermaster, another Lego product spun off from the MIT programmable brick technology that was more in line with the traditional product philosophies of the Lego group.[9]^: 1067

The Lego Mindstorms Robotics Invention System (RIS) was released September 1998[11] at a retail price of $199. Instead of being sold at toy stores, the product was sold at electronics stores like BestBuy and CompUSA, due to the relatively high cost of the set.[8] The entire production run (of between 60 and 100 thousand units[12]) sold out within 3 months.[13]^: 181[3]^: 30

The second edition of the RIS, Robotics Invention System 1.5, was released in the summer of 1999. [13]^: 187[14]

A third edition, RIS 2.0, was launched in 2001. "3804: Robotics Invention System V2.0". Brickset.com. n.d. Retrieved 23 October 2023.</ref>

Despite being aimed towards children, the Robotics Invention System quickly found an audience with adults and hackers of all ages; Lego company surveys conducted a few months after launch determined that seventy percent of Lego Mindstorms Hobbyists were adults. Shortly following the product's launch, adult hobbyists began sharing reverse-engineered versions of the RCX brick's Microcode and Firmware on the internet, leading to the development of alternative programming languages for the RCX such as "Not Quite C" (NQC) and alternative operating systems for the brick like lejOS. The Lego Group briefly considered sending cease-and-desist letters to websites sharing the RCX's proprietary code [13]^: 183. However, The Mindstorms team successfully argued that the embrace of the product by the hacking community proved that the product was worth developing. In order to foster this burgeoning community, an official forum was established on the Lego website and a "right to hack" clause was added to end user license agreement of the Lego Mindstorms software. An official software developers kit for the RCX would later be released on the Mindstorms website. A significant amount of products focusing on the RIS were released by adult hobbyists, including how-to books, and unoffical sensors and hardware. A convention for Lego Mindstorms hobbyists, named Mindfest, started in 1999. [13]^{: 181–184}

Despite strong sales, The Mindstorms development team was neglected by upper management. As a cost-cutting measure, the Mindstorms office was shut down in 2001, and team members were laid-off or assigned to other projects [14]. The Lego Group continued to produce the Robotics Invention System 2.0 after the Mindstorms office was shut down, selling around 40,000 units per year without advertising [13]^: 189 until the set was discontinued in 2006 [15].

Lego also released a blue computer called the Scout, which has 2 sensor ports, 2 motor ports (plus one extra if linked with a Micro Scout using a fiber optic cable), and a built-in light sensor, but no PC interface. It comes with the Robotics Discovery Set. The Scout can be programmed from a collection of built-in program combinations. In order to program the Scout, a user must enable "power mode" on it. The Scout can store one program.

The Scout is based on a Toshiba microcontroller with 32 KB of ROM and 1 KB of RAM, where about 400 bytes are available for user programs. Due to the extremely limited amount of RAM, many predefined subroutines were provided in ROM. The Scout only supports passive external sensors, which means that only touch, temperature and other unpowered sensors can be used. The analog-to-digital converters used in the Scout only have a resolution of 8 bits, in contrast to the 10-bit converters of the RCX.[24]

There was a plan for Lego to create a booster set that allows programming the Scout from a computer with software such as RCX code. However, due to the complexity of this project, it was abandoned.

The RCX can control the Scout brick using the "Send IR Message" program block. The RCX does all of the controlling, and therefore can be programmed with the PC, while the Scout accepts commands. The Scout brick must have all of its options set to "off" during this process.

The Micro Scout was added as an entry-level to Lego robotics. It is a very limited Pbrick with a single built-in light sensor and a single built-in motor. It has seven built-in programs and can be controlled by a Scout, Spybotics or RCX unit using VLL. Like the Scout, the Micro Scout is also based on a microcontroller from Toshiba.

The unit was sold as part of the Droid Developer Kit (featuring R2-D2) and later the Dark Side Developer Kit (featuring an AT-AT Imperial Walker).

Lego Mindstorms NXT Kit

Robot built from the NXT kit

Lego Mindstorms NXT was a programmable robotics kit released by Lego in August 2006, replacing the first-generation Lego Mindstorms kit.[25] The kit consists of 577 pieces, including: 3 servo motors, 4 sensors (ultrasonic, sound, touch, and light), 7 connection cables, a USB interface cable, and the NXT Intelligent Brick. The Intelligent Brick is the "brain" of a Mindstorms machine. It lets the robot autonomously perform different operations. The kit also includes NXT-G, a graphical programming environment that enables the creation and downloading of programs to the NXT. The software also has instructions for 4 robots: Alpha-Rex (a humanoid), Tri-Bot (a car), Robo-Arm T-56 (a robotic arm), and Spike (a scorpion)

The Development of Lego Mindstorms NXT began in 2004. At the time, The Lego group was in the middle of a financial crisis. As part of the turn-around effort, the product line developed for release in 2006 would feature relatively few products that were guaranteed to be profitable. A revival of The Mindstorms Robotics Invention System was chosen as of these products, as Lego Mindstorms had a strong fan following and kits continued to sell well without advertising [13]^{: 187–188}.

Fans were extensively involved in the development and promotion of Mindstorms NXT. The development team collaborated with four hobbyists considered experts in Lego Mindstorms fan community. These fans were collectively known as the Mindstorms Users Panel (MUP). They were shipped early prototypes of the Mindstorms kit and communicated to Mindstorms team members on a private internet forum. MUP gave extensive feedback on the hardware and design of the NXT kit. Features of NXT directly based on requests of the MUP include the use 32-bit processor, more powerful motors, and Bluetooth compatibility [13]^: 194.

Promotion of Lego Mindstorms NXT was largely word-of-mouth based, because the company was in the middle of a financial crisis and did not have enough money for a large marketing campaign[13]^: 189. Mindstorms NXT was unveiled in January 2006 at the 2006 Consumer Electronics Show. At the show, Lego requested applications for a beta-testing phase, where 100 users, known as Mindstoms Community Partners (MCP)s would recieve NXT kits at a discounted price months before launch. The intention of the MCP program was to build support for the product prior to launch, and recieve feedback on the near-final kit [13]^{: 196–198}[14]. Fans involved in the MCP program provided a significant amount of PR for the set upon launch, such as alternate models, finished book drafts, and web content like blog posts[14]. News outlets like Wired and CNN also provided free publicity for Mindstorms NXT by reporting on the inclusion of fans in its development process [13]^: 199. The launch of Mindstorms NXT, measured in airtime hours, web content and magazine pages; generated more public interest than the entire company had previously accumulated in its entire lifetime[14].

Lego Mindstorms NXT (Product no. 8527) was released August 1st of 2006 [14]. $30 million dollars worth of kits were sold in the first year [13]^: 199.

Brick of Lego Mindstorms EV3

The Lego Mindstorms EV3 is the third generation Lego Mindstorms product. EV3 is a further development of the NXT.[27][28] The system was released on 1 September 2013. The Lego Mindstorms EV3 set includes motors (2 large servo motor and 1 medium servo motor), sensors (2 touch sensors, ultrasonic sensor, color sensor, infrared sensor, and the new gyro sensor), the EV3 programmable brick, 550+ Lego Technic elements and a remote control (the Infrared Beacon, which is only on Home/Retail mode). The EV3 can be controlled by smart-devices. It can boot an alternative operating system from a microSD card, which makes it possible to run ev3dev, a Debian-based operating system.

Spike Prime was announced in April 2019.[29] While not being part of the Mindstorms product line, the basic set includes three motors (1 large 2 medium) and sensors for distance, force and color[30] a controller brick based on an STM32F413 microcontroller[31] and 520+ Lego Technic elements.[32]

Lego Mindstorms Robot Inventor was announced in June 2020[33] and released later in autumn. It is the last commercially available Mindstorms set before the discontinuation of the theme announced on October 2022. It has four medium motors from Spike Prime, two sensors (distance sensor and color/light sensor) also from Spike Prime, a Spike Prime hub with a six-axis gyroscope, an accelerometer, and support for controllers and phone control. It also has 902+ Lego Technic elements.

Mindstorms kits are also sold and used as an educational tool, originally through a partnership between Lego and the MIT Media Laboratory.[35][36] The educational version of the products is called Mindstorms for Schools or Mindstorms Education, and later versions come with the ROBOLAB GUI-based programming software, developed at Tufts University[37] using the National Instruments LabVIEW as an engine.

• FIRST Lego League
• World Robot Olympiad (WRO)
• Robofest
• FIRST Tech Challenge
• RoboCup Junior
• Lego Education (WeDo 2.0)
• Big Trak
• iRobot Create
• Robotis Bioloid
• The Robotic Workshop
• Robotics suite
• C-STEM Studio
• Botball
• CubeStormer II
• Cubestormer 3

• Bagnall, Brian. Maximum Lego NXT: Building Robots with Java Brains. Variant Press. 2007. ISBN 0-9738649-1-5.
• Bagnall, Brian. Core Lego Mindstorms. Prentice-Hall PTR. 2002. ISBN 0-13-009364-5.
• Baum, Dave. Definitive Guide to Lego Mindstorms, 2nd ed. Apress. 2002. ISBN 1-59059-063-5.
• Erwin, Benjamin. Creative Projects with Lego Mindstorms (book and CD-ROM). Addison-Wesley. 2001. ISBN 0-201-70895-7.
• Ferrari et al. Building Robots with Lego Mindstorms: The Ultimate Tool for Mindstorms Maniacs. Syngress. 2001. ISBN 1-928994-67-9.
• Gindling, J., A. Ioannidou, J. Loh, O. Lokkebo, and A. Repenning., "Legosheets: A Rule-Based Programming, Simulation and Manipulation Environment for the Lego Programmable Brick", Proceeding of Visual Languages, Darmstadt, Germany, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1995, pp. 172–179.
• Breña Moral, Juan Antonio. Develop LeJOS programs Step by Step.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lego Mindstorms.

• Official website
• Lego Mindstorms at Curlie