Condor Legion

In the years after the Spanish Civil War, Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement. These included: providing distraction from German rearmament; preventing the spread of communism to Western Europe; creating a state friendly to Germany in order to disrupt Britain and France; and opening up possibilities for economic expansion.[3] Although the Nationalist offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937, a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas was supported by the Condor Legion. Despite prolonging the Civil War, it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler's ambitions in Central Europe.[18] Furthermore, the offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would help fuel German industry.[19] In a speech at Würzburg on 27 June 1937, Hitler declared that he supported Franco in order to gain control of Spanish ore.[20]

Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid prompting a wider European war, which was a risk if it committed further resources to Spain.[21] There was no consensus among German officials: Ernst von Weizsäcker of the German Foreign Office suggested that it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal, and Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a "red Spain". A joint Italian–German agreement stated that the last shipments would be made no later than early February.[21]

It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil War issue to distract Benito Mussolini from Hitler's own plans to annex Austria. The authoritarian, Catholic and anti-Nazi Vaterländische Front ran the government of Austria from 1933 to 1938 and had been allied with Mussolini. In 1934, the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss had already given rise to Italian military assistance to prevent a German invasion.[22]

A communiqué in December 1936 from Ulrich von Hassell, the German ambassador in Rome, made another point — that Italy’s involvement in the Spanish Civil War kept it firmly out of the camp of Western powers:

The role played by the Spanish conflict as regards Italy's relations with France and England could be similar to that of the Abyssinian conflict, bringing out clearly the actual, opposing interests of the powers and thus preventing Italy from being drawn into the net of the Western powers and used for their machinations.... All the more clearly will Italy recognize the advisability of confronting the Western powers shoulder to shoulder with Germany.

The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly-Basque region of northern Spain, was the most immediate target in what was called the War in the North.[19] It was largely a Nationalist and Italian offensive, but it was supported by a consistently re-equipping Condor Legion.[37] The terrain was favourable, with the planes coming over a range of mountains to the south, which masked their entrance.[19] Sperrle remained in Salamanca, and Wolfram von Richthofen replaced Holle in January as deputy and was in actual command.[19] Since the Basque air force was very limited, fighter aircraft were even used in ground-attack roles (as opposed to, for example, air-to-air combat). The Legion's air force initially attacked the towns of Ochandiano and Durango.[38] Durango had no anti-aircraft defence and only a few other defences. According to the Basques, 250 civilians died there on the 31 March, including the priest, nuns and the congregation of a church ceremony.[38][39] The Germans, with their air raids, were hated.[40] The Basque ground forces were in full retreat towards Bilbao through the town of Guernica, which was bombed on 26 April in one of the most controversial attacks of the Spanish Civil War.[39]

Ruins of Guernica (1937)

In Operation Rügen, waves of Ju 52 and He 111 planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The number of casualties is a matter of controversy, with perhaps 200 or 300 people killed;[41] the casualties reported by the Basques were 1,654 dead and 889 wounded.[39][42] Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans;[43] or claiming the attack was part of a prolonged offensive; or that the Rentería bridge, outside Guernica, was the true target. However, the nature of the operation itself, including the formation and armaments that were used, undermines the credibility of these explanations. Guernica was a clear target of the Condor Legion, rather than the Nationalists as a whole.[44][45] The offensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units of the Condor Legion and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist cause.[46]

The first English-language media reports of the destruction in Guernica appeared two days after the attack. George Steer, a reporter for The Times, who was covering the Spanish Civil War from inside the country, wrote the first full account of events. Steer's reporting set the tone for much of the subsequent reportage. Steer pointed out the clear German complicity in the action.[nb 4] The evidence of three small bomb cases stamped with the German Imperial Eagle made it clear that the official German position of neutrality in the war and the signing of a Non-Intervention Pact were only nominal and that German forces were actively participating in combat. Steer's report was syndicated to the New York Times and then worldwide and generated widespread shock, outrage and fear.

The Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete, which was a Republican offensive designed to take the pressure off northern Spain, where the fighting was ongoing.[46] The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce the broken line.[47] There were repeated raids by bombers and by fighters based at Salamanca on Republican armoured vehicles and, later, defensive positions.[48] Despite Nationalist fears, the Republican aircraft were ineffective, compared with German aircraft. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was shown to be superior to the I-15 and I-16 models used by Republican forces.[49] The Legion lost 8 aircraft but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were also improved with the experience of Brunete, particularly with the en masse use of tanks by the Nationalists.[50]

The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of northern Spain. The latest models of German test aircraft faced an outdated Basque air force (that had some Russian planes).[51] Heavy aerial bombardment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian planes occurred far behind Basque lines in August 1937 and led to the fall of Santander after the Battle of Santander on 1 September.[50] The formal battle in Asturias ended with the fall of Gijon on 21 October. A large amount of ammunitions was used by the Legion, including a million machine gun rounds and 2,500 tonnes of bombs.[50] Germany immediately began to ship industrial production back to the country.[52] Sperrle argued repeatedly with Faupel and against HISMA's monopoly. Faupel was replaced by Franco through Sperrle.[53] Sperrle also returned to Germany and was replaced by Hellmuth Volkmann.[53] After disagreements with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be replaced with Hermann Plocher in early 1938.[52]

Junkers Ju 87A with Condor Legion markings

After the next major campaigns, Madrid and Barcelona (discussed above), the Condor Legion was moved to Soria and began a week of strikes against Republican airfields. This move was halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuing Battle of Teruel.[54] The Legion's land and air forces were deployed, and the Legion moved to Bronchales. Poor weather resulted in few flights, and the town fell to Republican forces on 6 January.[55] Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalist's counter-offensive through the Alfambra Valley. The Junkers Ju 87A was used for the first time on the advance on Teruel, which was retaken on 22 February.[55] The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April to June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces.[55] The Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards the Segre River, before it moved south again following Nationalist successes.[56] The Legion moved its main headquarters to Benicarló; single-engined planes operated from airfields nearby and twin-engined planes from Zaragoza.[56] Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a change in attitude about the war in Germany: a quick victory in the war was not desirable, and a mere continuation of the war would be preferable.[57] German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat.[58] However, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion, and combined with a resurgence in Republican air activity, the Nationalist advance stalled, perhaps because of the reluctance of commanders in Germany to supply reinforcements, given the emerging Czechoslovak crisis.[56] Debates concerning the rising cost of the operation to the Germans — then at about 10 million Reichsmarks a month — continued unresolved.[59] The Legion's materiel had been exhausted.[60]

On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the last major offensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed a troop build-up and warned Nationalists forces, but the warning went unheeded.[61] Although the Republicans gained ground, they failed to gain control of Gandesa; 422 sorties by the Legion (with around 70 aircraft operational) having considerable effect. The rest of the battle saw a series of attacks using artillery or air strikes, followed by a Nationalist ground advance.[61] However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from the Legion, around half of whom were bomber crews. Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortfall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin, which would lead to his recall in September.[62] During the battle, which saw 113 days of fighting, only 10 aircraft were lost (some by accident) and 14 were badly damaged. The Legion claimed around 100 Republican aircraft, a third of those lost. Only 5 aircrew had been killed and 6 captured.[62] Aid from Germany temporarily halted in mid-September.[63] Germany and Nationalist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish mines.[64]

The Legion took a short break from active duty to receive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and Js, and Hs 126As, which brought its strength to 96 aircraft — around a fifth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with Hans Seidemann as chief of staff.[65] That reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war by enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro.[64] It mainly took part in operations against the remaining Republican air force during January–February 1939, with considerable success.[66] After it took part in parades in Barcelona and elsewhere and minor duties over Madrid, it was rapidly dissolved.[67] The men returned on 26 May, the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment was bought by the newly installed Spanish regime.[68]

The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Republican planes using aircraft (either shot down or bombed on the ground) and to have shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns.[69] It also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships, including Spanish Republican Navy vessels. It lost 72 aircraft from hostile action and another 160 from accidents.[70]

The Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel 88 (German: Aufklärungsstaffel See 88) was the Condor Legion's maritime unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wolff. Operating independently of the land-based division, it acted against enemy shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets such as bridges.[70] It used floatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which began operating at Cadiz in October 1936.[70] Missions started as reconnaissance, but after the move from Cadiz to Melilla in Spanish Morocco in December 1936, the focus shifted to attacks on shipping.[71] It was again moved in February 1937 to Málaga, which was newly captured, and then to Majorca when Málaga proved unsuitable.[71] In June, operations began to be expanded to allow attacks on all Republican ports as long as British ships were not present. There were 10 ships attacked in the second half of 1937, but the Norwegian torpedoes that were used proved ineffective, and strafing or bombing targets was used instead.[71]

The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen (known as "Iron Gustav") saw operations expand, and operations targeted Alicante, Almería, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval activity declined, inland targets became more numerous, and night missions began.[71] Activities in support of ground forces became the main focus of the unit until the end of hostilities. Both Wolff and Harlinghausen received the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds.[72] In total, eleven men were killed in action, and five others died due to accident or illness.[72]

Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was partly used to enforce the Non-Intervention Agreement from interfering in the war. However, the agreement was clearly broken by Germany.[73] As a result, the German pocket battleship Deutschland stood guard over Ceuta to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported troops to the Spanish mainland.[74] By mid-October, the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer, the light cruiser Köln, and four torpedo boats. After the Germans claimed that Leipzig had been attacked by an unidentified submarine, it was formally withdrawn from international patrols.[75]

Operation Ursula, named after the daughter of Karl Dönitz, involved a group of German U-boats active around Spain.[76] It began on 20 November 1936, with the movement of the U-33 and the U-34 from Wilhelmshaven. Identification marks were obscured, and the whole mission was kept secret.[76] Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations.[77] During their return to Wilhelmshaven in December, the Republican submarine C-3 was sunk; the Germans claimed that the sinking resulted a torpedo fired by U-34, although the Republican enquiry claimed its loss to have been caused by an internal explosion. Their submarines' return marked the official end of Operation Ursula.[77] However, further submarines seem to have been sent in mid-1937, but details of the operation are not known (although six are believed to have been involved).[77]

The German Intelligence service, the Abwehr, working independently of the Condor Legion, was secretly involved in Operation Bodden. It later played a part in the detection of the Operation Torch invasion fleet.[nb 5]

On 20 May, the KdF fleet, including the MV Wilhelm Gustloff and 7 other ships, were given secret orders and diverted from their regular pleasure cruise schedule to arrive in Vigo, Spain. They arrived on the 24th to pick up the triumphant legion and departed on the 26th to bring them on a five-day voyage to Hamburg, Germany. There, they arrived to ecstatic crowds, parades and ceremonies celebrating their success, with Hermann Göring and other high-ranking officials in attendance.[78]

"Condor Legion" infantry training school in Ávila, Spain

Many army leaders were hesitant to become involved in the conflict and resisted a call made by the Italian government for a dual transfer of ground troops to Spain. The involvement of the Luftwaffe, however, was not entirely restricted, and a commonly-held viewpoint is that the involvement of the Luftwaffe in the Civil War was a proving ground for troops fighting during World War II. That view is supported by the testimony of Hermann Göring, when he was on trial at Nuremberg. When asked about the decision to use the Luftwaffe, Göring stated:

When the Civil War broke out in Spain, Franco sent a call for help to Germany and asked for support, particularly in the air. One should not forget that Franco with his troops was stationed in Africa and that he could not get the troops across, as the fleet was in the hands of the Communists, or, as they called themselves at the time, the competent Revolutionary Government in Spain. The decisive factor was, first of all, to get his troops over to Spain. The Führer thought the matter over. I urged him to give support [to Franco] under all circumstances, firstly, in order to prevent the further spread of communism in that theater and, secondly, to test my young Luftwaffe at this opportunity in this or that technical respect.[79][nb 6]

That was also a view put forth in western media after the disengagement of German forces from Spain.[80]

Dozens of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Heinkel He 111 medium bombers and, from December 1937, at least three Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers, first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft. The Stuka's first mission flown in Spain was February 1938. Each of the aircraft played a major role during the early years of World War II. The Germans also realised that biplane fighters were quickly becoming less effective than newer monoplane designs. The Heinkel He 51 fighter, after suffering many losses during the first twelve months of the conflict, was switched to a ground attack role and later saw service as a trainer.

The Condor Legion also included ground combat units. Panzer crews operating Panzer I light tanks were commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma. The Germans also tested small numbers of 88 mm Flak 18 anti-aircraft artillery guns to destroy Republican tanks and fortifications with direct fire, as well as enemy aircraft in their designed role.

The German involvement in Spain also saw the development of the first air ambulance service for evacuation of wounded combatants.[nb 7]

Bf 109 C-1, Jagdgruppe 88, Legion Condor

One military innovation that is thought to have directly resulted from the conflict is the technical development of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The V3 – V6 types entered service in Spain directly from operational trials around January 1937. In the spring of 1938, they were joined by type C aircraft with type Es being first deployed in December 1938.

Besides the potential gains in combat experience, it is also thought that strategic initiatives were first tested during Luftwaffe involvement in the conflict. As the fighting progressed into March 1938, Italian pilots under Fieldmarshal Hugo Sperrle launched 13 raids against Barcelona that involved fire and gas bombs and that killed thousands of civilians. It is worth noting that a subsequent commander of the Legion in Spain, Wolfram von Richthofen, would rise to the rank of Field Marshal during World War II and serve in high positions of Luftwaffe throughout the conflict, mostly as a specialist in ground attack. His units spearheaded offensives in Poland, France and the Low Countries, and the Balkans, as well as Operation Barbarossa.

Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations and strafing became features of the war. The Legion worked closely in missions to maximise the fighting ability of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV, and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). The German air ace Adolf Galland claimed that the focus after World War II on lessons learned by the Germans from the conflict in Spain, the value of these lessons was exaggerated; he believed that the wrong conclusions were drawn by the German High Command, in particular with respect to the Luftwaffe:

Whatever may have been the importance of the tests of German arms in the Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts.

• Thomas, Hugh (1961). The Spanish Civil War (1 ed.). London: Eyre and Spottiswoode.
• Westwell, Ian (2004). Condor Legion: The Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Spearhead. Vol. 15. Ian Allan publishing. ISBN 978-0711030435.