Balanica

Hemi-mandible BH-1 discovered in Mala Balanica. Belonging to Heildelberg Man, it is estimated to be 397,000-525,000 years old

The entrance is 2 by 1.5 m (6 ft 7 in by 4 ft 11 in), the hall is 12 by 6 m (39 by 20 ft), with average height of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[7] The maximum height is 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in), while the elongated karstic chamber is 25 m (82 ft) deep.[6]

In 2006 remains of Homo heidelbergensis were discovered.[3] It was a hemi-mandible, named BH-1. Originally, the researchers were unable to assign it to a specific hominin species. The CT scanning was conducted to create a 3D image of the mandible, while the U-series method of radiometric dating was originally used to determine the jaw's age. Due to the limitation of the process, and some unusual readings, it was tentatively dated to 113,000+72,000-43,000 years, as older specimen was never discovered in this part of Europe. This was set as the minimum age.[6]

The mandible was excavated in the lower stratigraphic level of the cave, 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) below the artifact bearing level, or 281 to 284 cm (111 to 112 in) of total depth.[10] It was the first hominin specimen in the Central Balkans recovered through controlled excavations with firm stratigraphic context. The mandible is 6.7 cm (2.6 in) long and preserved from the posterior canine alveolus to the mesial aspect of the ascending ramus. All three molars are present in their sockets. The lower half of the mesiolingual root of the third molar is missing and the remaining roots are exposed due to the destruction of the adjacent endomandibular lamina. The mesial section of the mandible shows an old breakage filled with sediment, whereas all of the breaks on the distal end are fresh.[6][11]

The presence of the alveolar planum (the distance from the frontmost tooth socket to the back of the jaw), and the overall robusticity indicated a non-modern morphology and primitive character states comparable with the Early Pleistocene. Despite relative geographic proximity and possible contemporaneity with the Krapina Neanderthals, the mandible does not share any observable derived Neanderthal traits. As it didn't appear to be Neanderthal, but more archaic, the mandible was originally described as belonging to the generic archaic Homo sp. Shape of the dental arcade and molar morphology placed the remains in the genus Homo, but its fragmentary nature and plesiomorphic character of its traits precluded a more precise taxonomic designation.[6]

However, the 2013 survey which included electron spin resonance combined with uranium series isotopic analysis, and infrared/post-infrared luminescence dating, provided a minimum age between 397,000 and 525,000 years. Measurements have been conducted by the University of Bordeaux in France, and Université du Québec à Montréal in Canada. Though some results, especially of the sediments where the mandible was discovered, showed results of older periods, up to 602,000 years old (582,000 in sediments above the mandible), the researchers concluded from other facts and circumstances that this is probably not the case, settling on the lower range. The remains are now fully assigned to Homo heidelbergensis,[10] which was later corroborated by the detailed dental survey.[11]

Even the lower range places Mala Balanica among the oldest hominin fossils in Europe. Its older estimate overlaps with Sima de los Huesos in Spain (600,000 BP± 60,000) and is slightly younger than Mauer in Germany (609,000 BP± 40,000). Younger minimum age limit overlaps with Arago in France (435,000 BP± 85,000) and Visogliano in Italy (350,000–500,000). It is somewhat older than Ceprano (353,000 BP± 4,000), also in Italy. As for the surrounding region, there are only two other Middle Pleistocene specimens, Petralona and Apidima, both in Greece, but both are notably younger.[10]

Except for the Visogliano remains, which are identified as Homo erectus, all other human remains are currently identified as Homo heidelbergensis. The Heidelberg man is considered a chronospecies of Neanderthals, at least in the European context. However, the contemporary Middle Pleistocene hominin population in Western Europe shows unequal presence of Neanderthal traits. While in the Sima de los Huesos Neanderthal morphology is more pronounced, in the eastern Arago and Ceprano localities not so much. Robin Dennell suggested that Neanderthals were evolving in Western Europe during glacial isolation periods, but in warmer periods more primitive species which remained in the Balkans, and south generally, would repopulate the west, reasserting their traits. For example, Mala Balanica's mandible shows absolutely no Neanderthal morphological traits. Hence the discrepancy between the common traits among the contemporary populations as Homo heidelbergensis constantly "diluted" Homo neanderthalensis in its beginnings. The Balkans remained connected to Southwest Asia even during the ice age and served as a transit route. Much later, fully evolved Neanderthals would migrate to the east.[10][11]

Velika Balanica is a relatively large cave, covering 400 m² (4,300 sq ft), of which 30 m² (320 sq ft) is surveyed.[9] The entrance is 1.5 by 2 by 2 m (4 ft 11 in by 6 ft 7 in by 6 ft 7 in), while the entry hall is 9 by 2 by 2 m (29.5 by 6.6 by 6.6 ft). Originally, 160 m² (1,700 sq ft) was accessible, with several buried corridors which lead into further, later uncovered, halls.[7] A 3 m (9.8 ft) deep stratigraphic sequence is divided in 5 layers (1 to 5), which are divided into further sub-levels (2a, 2a2, 2a3, 2b, 2c, 3a-3c, 4a-4d, 5a-5d). Level 1 is sterile. Typical Mousterian artefacts are found throughout the 2nd layer, while the Charentian industries were discovered in the entire layer 3. Layers 4 and 5 are still being surveyed.[9]

Lithic assemblages from the Charentian period in both caves, and remains of microfauna, suggest that layer 3a corresponds to the late Middle Pleistocene, probably the interglacial Marine Isotope Stages 9 or 7. Taking into the account the Proto-Charentian character of industry, and parallels with Karain Cave in Turkey, this would put the layer 3a at 330,000-300,000 BP.[9]

Remains of the cliff-dwelling Alpine ibex are the most abundant in the caves. The ibex has since gone extinct in this part of Europe

Until 2014, over 10,000 animal bone remains were discovered, but due to the extreme fragmentation, over 86% is non-identifiable being shorter than 3 cm (1.2 in). Among herbivores, the most represented are the remains of Alpine ibex and red deer, followed by chamois. They are present in all layers' 2 and 3 sub-layers. Bones of forest rhinoceros are found in some of the sub-levels of both layers, while wild horse, aurochs and steppe bison are represented only in the layer 3. Carnivores are much less represented, including remains of European wildcat in sub-layer 2a, cave bear in 2a and 2-b, and wolf in 3b and 3c. Remains of red fox were also found.[12]

Based on the topographic cliff-like location of the cave, abundance of ibex and chamois remains is expected. Predators belong to the typical grassland and forested environments, which corresponds to the moderate temperatures and presumed paleo-environment in the interglacial Marine Isotope Stages 7 to 9. It is believed that primary food source were deer and ibex, while other large fauna had secondary role. This points to a certain level of specialization in hunting, with focus on more productive animals. Sub-layer 2 indicate summer use of the cave and a clearly specialized economy which included summer hunting of young deer, grazing in herds in the Morava's fluvial plain. These localities are some 5 km (3.1 mi) to the south-southwest. By contrast, ibex and chamois were living around the site, on the gorge's cliffs. This points to the low role of large mammals in diet, which is generally narrow and heavily influenced by the location of the cave.[13]

Unlike other Neanderthal groups, the main focus of Balanica residents was not the large game, as those animals lived in the river plains, far from the cave, which caused logistic problems of transporting large carcasses back into the cave. Failure in developing efficient transportation strategy of large animals may indicate sub-optimal behavior. Consequently, the paleo-economy practiced by the inhabitants of Velika Balanica was less efficient than the one observed in other Upper Paleolithic records. Still, the logistic mobility of the settlers was apparently rather high, which points to the intense residential use of the cave.[14]

The taphonomical analysis points towards an anthropogenic origin of the deposit, i.e., the remains were brought into the cave by humans, rather than animals living and dying in the cave. Biostratinomic and diagenetic alterations in the assemblage include the abundance of butchery and breakage marks, with thermoalterations (treatment by fire) confirming this.[15] There is abundant evidence (including fragmentation and use of fire) of marrow extraction. Especially the long bones of red deer and ibex were intensively exploited to obtain marrow grease.[16]

Observing skeletal elements in the assemblage (77% appendicular skeleton, 15% teeth, 14% axial skeleton, 9% heads), it points towards a mayor contribution of high-utility parts.[13] Tools found among the hominin remains are almost identical to the tools found in Middle East at that period pointing to the contact or even mixing of two populations. Remains, originating from the Middle Paleolithic, include numerous artefacts, fauna remains and hearths.[3] Also found were stone tools for leather processing, or Quina type grattoir de côté.[1]

Specifically, stone tools from Velika and Mala Balanica caves show a distinctive assortment of characteristics, like large flakes with at least one blunt margin, distinctive scalar Quina retouch, extensive reworking of scrapers, and the predominance of scrapers in the assemblage. These characteristics are not noticed in the similarly dated assemblages from the surrounding region. They show strong similarities with the contemporaneous Yabrudian facies of the Acheulo-Yabrudian complex. These findings strongly suggest movement of population, and possible cultural interactions between Southwest Asia (Levant) and the Balkans during the Chibanian.[2][5]

The tools were used for butchering of animals, including skinning, dismembering and defleshing of bones, leaving butchering and cut marks on the bones, which are in 90% of cases limb bones. Some 30% of total bones was manually hit whilst fresh, producing oblique angles and curved profiles. On many, hammerstone percussions were identified, with flake scars and splinters. Almost one third of the bones was treated by fire. Such abundance of burnt traces may be a result of intense cooking, or cleaning the living floors in the cave.[17]

During the summer of 2017, four teeth were discovered. The first tooth was discovered by the student Ljubica Stajić. They are three adult teeth and one child's (a six-year molar), belonging to at least two persons. Dated to the Chibanian period,[3][2] they were estimated to be 300,000 years old. That makes them the oldest Neanderthal remains outside of western Europe, indicating massive migration to the east,[1] or the Eastern Mediterranean Area. The more precise thermoluminescence dating places them between 285,000 BP+ 34,000 and 295,000 BP+ 74,000.[2] Additionally, they are the second oldest hominin remains in Serbia after those from Mala Balanica. The teeth were found among the remains of the hearth,[1] in the archaeological layer 3a.[2] Examination of the remains showed that they bear the closest resemblance to 430,000 years old Neanderthal remains from Atapuerca's site Sima de los Huesos, in Spain.[3]