Co-determination

There are three main views as to why codetermination exists: to reduce management-labour conflict by improving and systematizing communication channels;[2] to increase bargaining power of workers at the expense of owners by means of legislation;[3] and to correct market failures by means of public policy.[4] The evidence on "efficiency" is mixed, with codetermination having either no effect or a positive but generally small effect on enterprise performance.[5]

During the 2021 federal election, Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole pledged to require that federally regulated employers with over 1,000 employees or $100 million in annual revenue include worker representation on their boards of directors should he be elected Prime Minister.[8][9]

The first codetermination plans began at companies and through collective agreements.[10] Prior to 1976, German coal and steel producers employing more than 1,000 workers already commonly maintained a board of directors composed of 11 members: five directors came from management, five were workers' representatives, with the eleventh member being neutral. (Note: Boards could be larger as long as the proportion of representation was maintained.) In 1976, the law's scope was expanded to cover all firms employing more than 2,000 workers; with some changes concerning to the board structure, which has an equal number of management and worker representatives, with no neutral members (except in the Mining-and-steel industries where the old law remained in force). The new board's head would represent the firm's owners and had the right to cast the deciding vote in instances of stalemate. (The original law comprising coal-and-steel industries thus remained unchanged in force)[11]

The Companies Empowering Act 1924[12] allowed companies to issue shares for labour and have them represented by directors, but it was little used,[13] even its chief promoter, Henry Valder, being unable to get his company board to agree to it.[14] It was consolidated into the Companies Act in 1933.[15] The Law Commission recommended its abolition in 1988 for lack of use.[16] The Companies Act 1993 did not allow for labour shares.[17]

In the UK, the earliest examples of codetermination in management were codified into the Oxford University Act 1854 and the Cambridge University Act 1856. In private enterprise, the Port of London Act 1908 was introduced under Winston Churchill's Board of Trade.[18]

While most enterprises do not have worker representation, UK universities have done so since the 19th century. Generally the more successful the university, the more staff representation on governing bodies: Cambridge,[19] Oxford,[20] Edinburgh, Glasgow and other Scottish Universities,[21]

Massachusetts has the world's oldest codetermination law that has been continually in force since 1919, although it is voluntary and only for manufacturing companies.[22][23]

• Cooperative
  • Worker cooperative
• Corporatism
• Employee stock ownership
• Labour law
• Labor union
• Market socialism
• Works council
• Workers' council
• Codetermination in Germany
• Polder model
• Paritarian Institutions
• Social Partnership
• Social ownership
• Worker representation on corporate boards of directors
• Workplace democracy

Articles

• E Batstone, A Ferner and M Terry, Unions on the board: an experiment in industrial democracy (1983)
• P Brannen, ‘Worker directors: an approach to analysis. The case of the British Steel Corporation’ in C Crouch and FA Heller, Organizational Democracy and Political Processes (Wiley 1983)
• E Chell, ‘Worker Directors on the Board: Four Case Studies’ (1980) 2(6) Employee Relations 1
• PL Davies and KW Wedderburn, ‘The Land of Industrial Democracy’ (1977) 6(1) ILJ 197
• E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016) 23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
• E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the ‘Single Channel’' (2018) 47(1) Industrial Law Journal 76
• E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019) 42 Seattle University Law Review 697
• HJ Teuteberg, ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschland’ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69
• S Vitols, 'Prospects for trade unions in the evolving European system of corporate governance' (2005) ETUI, summarising different economic results of codetermination
• Lord Wedderburn, ‘Companies and employees: common law or social dimension’ (1993) 109 Law Quarterly Review 261

Books

• Bank, John, and Jones, Ken, Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors (Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)
• HJ Teuteberg, Geschichte der Industriellen Mitbestimmung in Deutschland (1961)
• S Webb and B Webb, The History of Trade Unionism (1920) Appendix VIII

Reports

• Lord Donovan, Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employers’ Associations (1968) Cmnd 3623
• Liberal Party, The Report of the Industrial Partnership Committee: Partners at Work (1968)
• Uday Dokras, doctoral thesis, published as a book, The Act on Codetermination at Work- An Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm Sweden, 1990

• Emire: Germany - Co-Determination
• Emire: Austria - Co-Determination
• German Law in English - 40. Works council. Co-determination
• Co-Determination and Cooperative Culture in Israel

EU Draft Fifth Company Law Directive

• 1983 Revision
• 1991 Amendment