Moses ibn Ezra

The 11th and 12th centuries were an important time for Judaeo-Arabic poetry and literature. Jewish-Arabic speaking poets such as Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya and Moses Ibn Ezra differed very little in their writings from contemporary Arab poets. Their poetry included passages borrowed from the Bible and Qur'an as well as allusions to both works. After the foundation and consolidation of the Muslim Empire, the Arabic language and the related culture were only slowly adopted among the Jewish population of the dār al-Islām; it was not seen before the second half of the 3rd century of the Hij̲ra, and only became of real importance from the fourth to tenth centuries. Many Jewish intellectuals during this time evidenced feelings of guilt over using Arabic in their writing instead of Hebrew. The use of Arabic in poetry, secular as well as religious, remains the exception during the Middle Ages. Although Arabic was used in prose works by Jews and Muslims alike, intellectuals and poets who wrote in Judaeo-Arabic were in the minority at the time.[Brill Online 2]

It is well documented that Moses Ibn Ezra and the prominent philosopher Moses ben Maimon - Maimonides - had different opinions as to what represented a metaphor. Both philosophers had a huge impact on the use of metaphors in literary texts. Within the Kitab, Ibn Ezra attempted to use both Arabic and Hebrew forms of metaphor with passages taken from both the Qur'an and Bible. Ibn Ezra was quite critical of earlier authors who used metaphor only to exaggerate or substituted metaphor for precise literal language. Ibn Ezra's definition of metaphor revolves around the meaning of "isti-ara" (borrowing), which is a word meaning something not known using something already known. This is Ibn Ezra's way of explaining the concept of God and God's existence. Maimonides similarly defines metaphor as temporarily “borrowing.” Maimonides’ source for his definition of metaphor is from al-Farabi's Short Treatise on Aristotle's De Interpretatione. This model defines metaphor as "saying X and really meaning Y"; hence, the claim "X is a metaphor" entails proving that it refers to Y and not to X. One of his criticisms of Ibn Ezra was that Ibn Ezra simply cited his forty biblical examples without elucidation, even though many of them are not readily referenced. The fact that these two philosophers differed so greatly is not much of a surprise since their agendas also differed. Ibn Ezra was predominantly interested in the poetic aspect of metaphor whereas Maimonides had a pure philosophical intent in his definition.[2]

Ibn Ezra's most successful work was the "Kitab al-Muḥaḍarah wal-Mudhakarah", a treatise on rhetoric and poetry written about the "Adab" writings of the Arabs. It is the only work of its kind in Hebrew literature. It was written at the request of a friend who had addressed to him eight questions on Hebrew poetry, and is divided into a corresponding number of chapters.[3] In the first four chapters Ibn Ezra writes generally of prose and prose-writers, of poetry and poets, and of the natural poetic gift of the Arabs, which he attributes to the climate of Arabia. He concludes the fourth chapter with the statement that, with very rare exceptions, the poetical parts of the Bible have neither meter nor rhyme.

The fifth chapter begins with the history of the settlement of the Jews in Spain, which, according to the author, began during the Exile, the word "Sepharad" used by the prophet Obadiah (verse 20) meaning "Spain." Then comes a description of the literary activity of the Spanish Jews, giving the most important authors and their works. In the sixth chapter the author quotes various maxims and describes the general intellectual condition of his time. He deplores the indifference shown by the public to scholars. This indifference, he declares, does not affect him personally; for he can not count himself among those who have been ill-treated by fate; he has experienced both good and bad fortune. Moreover, he possesses a virtue which permits him to renounce any pretension to public recognition—the virtue of contentment and moderation.

In the seventh chapter, Ibn Ezra discusses the question of whether it is possible to compose poetry in dreams, as some writers claim to have done. The eighth chapter deals with twenty-three traditional Arabic figures of speech, illustrated with examples from the Koran, Arabic poetry, and Hebrew Andalusian poetry.[3]

Ibn Ezra's use of biblical as well as Arabic ideas has been well noted. Many of his poetic phrases use Arabic ornamentation and style. Ibn Ezra uses Arabic examples to illustrate the badi, twenty rhetorical techniques found in the Kitab al-Muhadara. The presence of the badi in Ibn Ezra's work reflects a tension among Arabic, Greek, and biblical authority. In the early parts of the Kitab, Ibn Ezra cites Aristotle's eight techniques through which poetry is refined. In this part of the work, Ibn Ezra gives more credit to the Greek and Hebrew influences on literary techniques and refrains from praising Arabic style. However, Ibn Ezra later turns to Arabic poets to discuss the isti-ara, the excellence of metaphor. Here he praises the literary techniques employed by early Arabic poets. Ibn Ezra also turns to ancient Hebrew Scriptures and praises the use of metaphor in early biblical writing.[2] In essence, Ibn Ezra's style is a result of different sources and influences which helped him develop his own poetic definitions.

Ibn Ezra's philosophical contributions were considered only minor when compared to his contributions to poetry and literature. One piece of literature that highlights Ibn Ezra's philosophical viewpoints was the "Al-Maqāla bi al-Ḥadīqa fi Maʿnā al-Majāz wa al-Ḥaqīqa." This was a work in Arabic. Much of it reiterated his poetic beliefs about the relationship between man and God and the unknowability of God. Ibn Ezra's philosophy had a neoplatonic orientation with regard to the relationship between God and man. Ibn Ezra focuses on man as a microcosm so that God is considered a self-subsistent, unitary being who preceded creation, which therefore ultimately led to man's creation being perfect. He states that God's perfection cannot be comprehended by the human mind and the finite and imperfect human mind cannot know the infinite and perfect mind of God. Ibn Ezra's philosophy also addresses intellect, declaring that the active intellect was God's first creation. Ibn Ezra claims that the intellect is a pure substance from which all things are inherently created. Along with the active intellect is another form Ibn Ezra describes as the passive intellect. This form of intellect is considered to be above the active intellect and superior to the rational soul.[5]

It was believed that a primary reason besides the invasion of Granada that caused Ibn Ezra to leave and never return home is an alleged love affair he had with his niece. Subtle signs of this affair can be inferred from some of his poems. For example, in one of his poems Ibn Ezra writes of a love affair he had and dedicates the poem to his brother Isaac. Ibn Ezra's brothers and nephews reputedly opposed the affair, and this in turn led to problems within the family. This affair, however, remains only a theory proposed by S. D. Luzzatto.[6]