Naser al-Din Shah Qajar

The state under Naser al-Din was the recognized government of Iran but its authority was undermined by local tribal leaders. The religious and tribal chieftains held quite a bit of autonomy over their communities. Naser al-Din was not effective in implementing his sovereignty over his people. Local groups had their own militias and oftentimes did not obey laws passed by the monarchy since they did not have the power to enforce them. The people followed the ulama's fatwas instead of state issued law. When Naser al-Din took power, his army barely had 3,000 men which was significantly smaller than the armies under various tribal leaders. When the state needed a proper army, he would hire the local militias.[3] Prior to his reforms, Naser's government had very little power over their subjects and even during the reforms, they faced more scrutiny over their ability to implement those reforms successfully.

Naser al-Din Shah by Abul Hasan Ghaffari, 1859

Naser al-Din was in Tabriz when he heard of his father's death in 1848,[4] and he ascended to the Sun Throne with the help of Amir Kabir. During his reign he would have to deal with the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar, as well as insurrections by Babis.

Naser al-Din had early reformist tendencies, but was dictatorial in his style of government. With his sanction, thousands of Bábis were killed, this was in reaction to an assassination attempt from a small group of Bábis.[5] This treatment continued under his prime minister Amir Kabir, who even ordered the execution of the Báb – regarded as a manifestation of God to Bábí's and Baháʼís, and to historians as the founder of the Bábí religion.

Unable to regain the territory in the Caucasus irrevocably lost to Russia in the early 19th century, Naser al-Din sought compensation by seizing Herat, in 1856. Great Britain regarded the move as a threat to British India and declared war on Persia, forcing the return of Herat as well as Persia's recognition of the kingdom of Afghanistan.[6]

Naser al-Din was the first modern Persian monarch to visit Europe in 1873 and then again in 1878 (when he saw a Royal Navy Fleet Review), and finally in 1889 and was reportedly amazed with the technology he saw. During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1873, Naser al-Din Shah was appointed by Queen Victoria a Knight of the Order of the Garter, the highest English order of chivalry. He was the first Persian monarch to be honoured as such. His travel diary of his 1873 trip has been published in several languages, including Persian, German, French, and Dutch.

In 1890 Naser al-Din met British major Gerald F. Talbot and signed a contract with him giving him the ownership of the Persian tobacco industry, but he later was forced to cancel the contract after Ayatollah Mirza Hassan Shirazi issued a fatwa that made farming, trading, and consuming tobacco haram (forbidden). Consuming tobacco from the newly monopolized 'Talbet' company represented foreign exploitation, so for that reason it was deemed immoral. It even affected the Shah's personal life as his wives did not allow him to smoke.

This was not the end of Naser al-Din's attempts to give concessions to Europeans; he later gave the ownership of Persian customs incomes to Paul Julius Reuter.[7]

Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, King of Persia. Photography by Nadar in 1881

He defeated various rebels in the Iranian provinces, most notably in Khorasan, he balanced the budget by introducing reforms to the tax system, curbed the power of the clergy in the judiciary, built several military factories, improved relations with other powers to curb British and Russian influence, opened the first newspaper called Vaghaye-Ettefaghieh, embellished and modernized cities (for example by building the Tehran Bazaar) and most importantly opened the first Iranian school for upper education called the Dar ul-Funun where many Iranian intellectuals received their education. However Naser al-Din Shah's reforms were unpopular with some people.

The shah gradually lost interest for reform. However, he took some important measures such as introducing telegraphy and postal services and building roads. He also increased the size of the state's military and created a new group called the Persian Cossack Brigade[8] which was trained and armed by the Russians. He was the first Persian to be photographed and was a patron of photography who had himself photographed hundreds of times. His final prime minister was Ali Asghar Khan, who after the shah's assassination aided in securing the transfer of the throne to Mozaffar al-Din.

The Shah on his European tour, seated with British and Russian royalty in the Royal Albert Hall, London

Although he was successful in introducing these western based reforms, he was not successful in gaining complete sovereignty over his people or getting them to accept these reforms. The school he opened, Dar al-Funun, had very small enrollment numbers. The restrictions defined by Sh'ia Islam on the shah's collection of the zakat led to those funds going straight into the coffers of the ulama. Therefore, the financial autonomy given to the ulama enabled them to remain structurally independent, keeping madrasahs open and supporting the students therein.[9] The ulama also maintained their authority to challenge state law. To fund these new institutions and building projects, Naser repeatedly used tax farming to increase state revenue. Tax collectors routinely abused their power and the government was viewed as corrupt and unable to protect them from abuse by the upper class. This anti-government sentiment increased the ulama's power over the people because they were able to provide them security. Keddie states in her book, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, that at the time "it was still considered a sign of greater status to be admitted to the ranks of the ulama than it was to become a member of the civil service."[10]

In 1852 Naser al-Din dismissed and executed Amir Kabir, the famous Persian reformer. With him, many believe, died the prospect of an independent Persia led by meritocracy rather than nepotism.

In the later years of his rule, however, Naser al-Din steadfastly refused to deal with the growing pressures for reforms. He also granted a series of concessionary rights to foreigners in return for large payments. In 1872, popular pressure forced him to withdraw one concession involving permission to construct such complexes as railways and irrigation works throughout Persia. He visited Europe in 1873, 1878 and 1889. In 1890, he granted a 50-year concession on the purchase, sale, and processing of all tobacco in the country, which led to a national boycott of tobacco and the withdrawal of the concession. This last incident is considered by many authorities to be the origin of modern Iranian nationalism.

• Founder of the Imperial Order of the August Portrait, 1848[20]
• Founder of the Decoration of the Commander of the Faithful, November 1856[20]
• Founder of the Imperial Order of the Aqdas, 1870[21]
• Founder of the Imperial Order of the Sun for Ladies, 1873[20]

• Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen, in Brilliants, 1859[22]
• Grand Duchy of Baden:[23]
  • Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1889
  • Knight of the Order of Berthold the First, 1889
• Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert, 1889[24]
• Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (military), 4 August 1857[25]
• French Empire: Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur, 1855
• Kingdom of Italy:
  • Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, 13 April 1861[26]
  • Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 1862
• Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 1868
• Ottoman Empire:
  • Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class, 1880
  • Order of Glory, 1880
• Kingdom of Prussia:[27]
  • Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 12 January 1860; in Brilliants, 1873
  • Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle, in Brilliants, 9 June 1873
• Russian Empire:
  • Knight of the Imperial Order of the White Eagle, 1838
  • Knight of the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle the First-called, 1873
  • Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky, 1873
  • Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Anna, 1st Class, 1873
  • Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st Class, 1873
• Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 7 March 1890[28]
• United Kingdom: Stranger Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, 26 June 1873[29]
• Kingdom of Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown, 1889[30]