Niu–Li factional strife

Traditionally, the seeds of the Niu–Li factional strife were seen to have been sown in 808, when Emperor Xianzong held a special imperial examination for the examinees to give honest criticism of government. The officials in charge of the examination, Wei Guanzhi and Yang Yuling (楊於陵), selected three examinees who gave blunt criticism—Niu Sengru, Huangfu Shi (皇甫湜), and Li Zongmin—for top marks. However, Chancellor Li Jifu was stung by the criticism they provided and viewed it as a personal attack against him. Li Jifu tearfully complained to Emperor Xianzong that the reviewers of the scores that Wei and Yang gave the imperial scholars - Pei Ji and Wang Ya — had conflicts of interest, as Huangfu was Wang's nephew. As a result of his accusations, Pei, Wang, Yang, and Wei were each demoted, with Wei initially demoted to be the prefect of Guo Prefecture (果州, in modern Nanchong, Sichuan), and then further moved to be the prefect of Ba Prefecture (巴州, in modern Bazhong, Sichuan). Niu, Huangfu, and Li Zongmin were not exiled, but were said in the Zizhi Tongjian to be effectively stalled in their careers, forcing them to find governmental positions themselves under regional governors.[1] Despite this, Li Jifu's son Li Deyu viewed the insult on his father to be too great to bear, and thereafter an enmity developed between Li Deyu and those he viewed as having criticized his father unfairly.[2]

After Emperor Xianzong's death in 820, Emperor Xianzong's son Emperor Muzong became emperor. Subsequently, the imperial examinations of 821 became, according to the Song dynasty historian Sima Guang, the triggering event for what became the Niu–Li factional strife.[3]

As of 821, Li Deyu was serving as an imperial scholar (翰林學士, Hanlin Xueshi), and both he and fellow imperial scholar Yuan Zhen were resentful of Li Zongmin, who had become a Zhongshu Sheren (中書舍人)—a mid-level official at the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng). Meanwhile, Li Zongmin's junior colleague at the legislative bureau, Yang Rushi (楊汝士), and the deputy minister of rites (禮部侍郎, Libu Shilang) Qian Hui (錢徽), were in charge of overseeing the imperial examinations. The military governor (Jiedushi) Duan Wenchang (a former chancellor) and the imperial scholar Li Shen both made secret pleas to Qian for certain examinees. However, when the results were announced, the examinees that Duan and Li Shen recommended were not given passing results, while among those passing the examinations were Zheng Lang, the brother of the examination bureau (門下省, Menxia Sheng) official Zheng Tan; Pei Zhuan (裴譔) the son of the military governor Pei Du (also a former chancellor); Li Zongmin's son-in-law Su Chao (蘇巢); and Yang Rushi's brother Yang Yinshi (楊殷士). This caused a popular uproar, and Duan submitted a report accusing Yang Rushi and Qian of being unfair. When Emperor Muzong requested opinions from the imperial scholars, Li Deyu, Yuan, and Li Shen all agreed with Duan's opinion. Emperor Muzong thus ordered Li Zongmin's colleague Wang Qi (王起) to conduct a re-examination, while demoting Qian, Li Zongmin, and Yang Rushi to be prefectural prefects and deposing 10 of the examinees selected by Qian and Yang Rushi.[3]

Meanwhile, by 823, Niu Sengru was serving as the deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang), and was much respected by Emperor Muzong. After the death of the military governor-turned-chancellor Han Hong, Emperor Muzong discovered that virtually all the officials in the imperial administration had received bribes from Han, who wanted to ingratiate them, but that Niu had refused the bribe. Emperor Muzong, impressed by Niu, named him chancellor in 823. At that time, Li Deyu, who had become the governor (觀察使, Guanchashi) of Zhexi Circuit (浙西, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), was considered a potential chancellor candidate as well, and as he was passed over in this selection and would eventually not be promoted for a stretch of eight years. He came to believe that it was the chancellor Li Fengji (who was later considered a Niu-party leader as well)[2] who recommended Niu for chancellorship in order to reject him. He thus resented Niu and Li Fengji even more.[4]

Meanwhile, Li Shen, still an imperial scholar at this point, was also respected by Emperor Muzong, and he often criticized both Li Fengji and the powerful eunuch Wang Shoucheng, with whom Li Fengji had a good relationship. Li Fengji, in order to alienate Emperor Muzong from Li Shen, intentionally recommended Li Shen as deputy chief imperial censor (御史中丞, Yushi Zhongcheng) in order to create a conflict between Li Shen and Han Yu, the mayor of the capital municipality Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the Chang'an region)—over the matter of whether Han, as the mayor, was required by tradition to pay respect to the imperial censors. As Han also carried the honorary title of chief imperial censor (御史大夫, Yushi Daifu), Li Fengji had ruled that he need not, but Li Shen nevertheless demanded it, causing him and Han to exchange harshly worded communiques to each other. With the dispute between Li Shen and Han flaring into the open, Li Fengji recommended demotions for both, and Han was made the deputy minister of defense (兵部侍郎, Bingbu Shilang) while Li Shen was made the governor of Jiangxi Circuit (江西, headquartered in modern Nanchang, Jiangxi). Subsequently, Emperor Muzong realized that this conflict had been manufactured by Li Fengji, and kept Li Shen in the capital as the deputy minister of census.[4]

In 824, Emperor Muzong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Jingzong. In the aftermath of Emperor Jingzong's ascension, Li Fengji had Wang Shoucheng informed Emperor Jingzong that it was because of Li Fengji's support that Emperor Muzong made him crown prince—and that Li Shen and the former chancellor Du Yuanying had both supported Emperor Muzong's younger brother Li Cong (李悰) the Prince of Shen. Believing Wang's assertions, Emperor Jingzong exiled Li Shen to be the military advisor to the prefect of Chao Prefecture (潮州, in modern Chaozhou, Guangdong), and demoted two imperial scholars that Li Shen had recommended, Pang Yan (龐嚴) and Jiang Fang (蔣防), to be prefects of two other distant prefectures. Li Fengji's associates subsequently often asked that Li Shen be put to death, and Emperor Jingzong initially agreed. After the junior imperial scholar Wei Chuhou submitted a petition in Li Shen's defense, Emperor Jingzong reviewed the palace archives and found that both Du and Li Shen (as well as Pei Du) had also supported him as crown prince, Emperor Jingzong destroyed all the reports accusing Li Shen of crimes, although he did not recall Li Shen to Chang'an.[4]

Meanwhile, in 825, Niu Sengru was still serving as chancellor, but he was feeling powerless to stop what he saw as Emperor Jingzong's frivolousness and poor governance. He asked to be sent out of the capital. Emperor Jingzong made him the military governor of Wuchang Circuit (武昌, headquartered in modern Ezhou, Hubei). Also, that year after Emperor Jingzong declared a general pardon, Li Fengji submitted a proposed edict announcing the general pardon that would permit those exiled officials who had previously received a movement toward Chang'an be given another one, but not stating anything with regard to those exiled officials who had never received a previous movement toward Chang'an. Wei pointed out that this wording was intended by Li Fengji to prevent Li Shen's movement toward Chang'an. At Wei's suggestion, the edict was revised, allowing Li Shen to be moved to Jiang Prefecture (江州, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi) to serve as its secretary general.[4]

In 826, Emperor Jingzong summoned Pei (viewed by some later historians as a Li Party leader)[5] back to the capital and made him chancellor again. Trying to prevent Pei from gaining Emperor Jingzong's trust, Li Fengji's associates spread rumors that Pei was prophesied to be emperor, but Emperor Jingzong was not moved by these rumors.[4]

As Emperor Wuzong knew that it was not the wishes of chancellors Yang Sifu and Li Jue that he become emperor, he had both Yang Sifu and Li Jue relieved of their chancellorships soon after he took the throne. At the recommendation of the eunuch Yang Qinyi (楊欽義), whom Li Deyu had befriended while he was serving as the military governor of Huainan and Yang Qinyi served as the eunuch monitor of the Huainan army, Emperor Wuzong recalled Li Deyu to serve as chancellor and entrusted him with the affairs of the state. Yang Sifu and Li Jue were sent out of the capital, to serve as the governors of Hunan Circuit (湖南, headquartered in modern Changsha, Hunan) and Gui District (桂管, headquartered in modern Guilin, Guangxi), respectfully, while such associates as Pei Yizhi (裴夷直) and Li Zhongmin (李中敏) were also demoted.[11]

In 841, with further accusations by Qiu Shiliang against Yang Sifu and Li Jue, as well as the eunuchs Liu Hongyi (劉弘逸) and Xue Jileng (薛季稜), whom Emperor Wenzong had trusted, he came to believe that Yang and Liu had intended to support Li Rong and Li Jue and Xue had intended to support Li Chengmei. The Emperor ordered Liu and Xue to commit suicide. He also sent eunuch messengers to Hunan and Gui to order the deaths of Yang and Li Jue. With Du Cong pointing out to Li Deyu that he should not encourage Emperor Wuzong to be in the mode of killing officials, Li Deyu, along with fellow chancellors Cui Gong, Cui Dan, and Chen Yixing, interceded on Yang's and Li Jue's behalf, and after much pleading from them, Yang, Li Jue, as well as Pei, were demoted further, but their lives were spared. However, later in the year, Li Deyu used the excuse of a major flood in Shannan East, where Niu Sengru was then serving as military governor, to have Niu relieved of his command and given the honorary post as senior advisor to the Crown Prince.[11]

Meanwhile, Li Deyu continued to have the full confidence of Emperor Wuzong, and his repeated suggestions, during the crisis where Tang's erstwhile ally Huigu collapsed under Xiajiasi attacks and Huigu forces subsequently raided Tang borders, were accepted by Emperor Wuzong. Eventually, under Li Deyu's oversight, Tang forces were able to defeat the marauding Huigu forces.[11][13]

In 843, Li Deyu, apparently intending to use the incident to further launch attacks against the Niu Faction officials, requested a review of the incident where Xidamou surrendered Wei Prefecture but then was returned to Tufan to be killed. In response, Emperor Wuzong honored Xidamou with a general title posthumously.[13]

Later in 843, Liu Congjian died. At his death, he tried to pass the command of Zhaoyi Circuit to his adopted son Liu Zhen (his biological nephew), and the officials at court had different opinions about whether a campaign should be launched against Liu Zhen or whether he should be allowed to assume command. Under Li Deyu's advocacy, Emperor Wuzong ordered a general campaign against Liu Zhen,[13] and in 844, under pressure from imperial troops, Liu Zhen's subordinate Guo Yi (郭誼) killed Liu Zhen and surrendered.[14]

Emperor Wuzong rewarded Li Deyu with great honors in light of the victory over Liu Zhen, including the title of the Duke of Zhao. However, at the same time, Li Deyu was drawing resentment over his domination of the court scene—and was particularly despised in his having Emperor Wuzong issue a posthumous edict condemning the relatives of Wang Yai, Jia Su, and Li Xun, who had fled to Zhaoyi and been protected by Liu Congjian but whom Guo slaughtered after killing Liu Zhen. Further, still resenting Niu and Li Zongmin, Li Deyu accused them of having corroborated with Liu Congjian and Liu Zhen, despite the lack of any evidence. Li Deyu went as far as inducing Liu Zhen's secretary Zheng Qing (鄭慶) into making the statement that whenever Liu Congjian received letters from Niu and Li Zongmin, he would read them and then burn them. Further, he had Lü Shu (呂述) the vice mayor of Luoyang, where Niu was at the time, make the accusation that when Niu heard of Liu Zhen's defeat, he sighed. Li Deyu relayed these accusations to Emperor Wuzong, and, in anger, he exiled both Niu and Li Zongmin. Further, in 845, Li Deyu had Li Shen, who was then the military governor of Huainan, falsely accused the county magistrate Wu Xiang (吳湘)—the nephew of an official that Li Deyu had deeply resented, Wu Wuling (吳武陵)—of forcibly marrying a commoner's daughter. Despite objections by many officials, under Li Deyu's advocacy, Emperor Wuzong ordered Wu Xiang's execution without further review.[14]

It was said that by this point, Li Deyu had been so affected by the power he wielded that he could no longer govern impartially. In 845, when the junior official Wei Hongzhi (韋弘質) pointed out that chancellors have so much power already that they should not further control the imperial treasury, Li Deyu had Wei demoted, further drawing resentment toward him.[14]

In 846, Emperor Wuzong, afflicted by illnesses caused by alchemists' pills, became seriously ill. The eunuchs secretly decided that Emperor Wuzong's uncle Li Yi the Prince of Guang should be made crown prince, and they issued an edict in his name to such effect. Emperor Wuzong soon died, and Li Yi (whose name was changed to Li Chen) took the throne (as Emperor Xuānzong).[14]

Emperor Xuānzong had, while an imperial prince, disliked Li Deyu's hold on power. After the ceremony in which he ascended to the throne and in which Li Deyu submitted the formal congratulatory report from the imperial officials on behalf of all of them, Emperor Xuānzong commented to his servants, "Was not the person who was closest to me during the ceremony the Taiwei [(i.e., one of the Three Excellencies and one of Li Deyu's titles)]? When he was looking at me, all my hairs were raised!"[14] Just seven days after taking the throne, Emperor Xuānzong, to the surprise of the entire imperial administration, sent Li Deyu out of the capital to serve as the military governor of Jingnan Circuit, and also exiled Li Deyu's associates Xue Yuanshang (薛元賞) and Xue Yuanxhang's brother Xue Yuangui (薛元龜). Soon after, Emperor Xuānzong issued an edict permitting the five former Niu Faction chancellors exiled by Emperor Wuzong—Niu Sengru, Li Zongmin, Cui Gong, Yang Sifu, and Li Jue—to be promoted to positions closer to Chang'an, although Li Zongmin died before he could be moved. Emperor Xuānzong also made Li Deyu the defender of Luoyang and removed the honorary chancellor title that he continued to carry as the military governor of Jingnan from him, further showing disapproval.[14]

Meanwhile, Bai Minzhong, who had become trusted by Emperor Xuānzong and been made chancellor, attacked Li Deyu for the offenses he had committed as chancellor, and he was further demoted to be an advisor to the crown prince. As well, people that Li Deyu had disfavored were often being promoted by this point, while people that Li Deyu had favored were demoted. Emperor Xuānzong also reversed the severe regulations against Buddhist monks and nuns that Emperor Wuzong had instituted with Li Deyu's support.[14]

In 847, when Wu Xiang's brother Wu Runa (吳汝納) submitted a petition proclaiming that Wu Xiang was executed even though he had committed no capital crimes and further accusing Li Shen and Li Deyu of conspiring to achieve the unjust result, Emperor Xuānzong ordered an investigation by the Office of the Imperial Censors (御史臺, Yushi Tai). After the investigation, Li Deyu was exiled to Chao Prefecture to serve as the military advisor to its prefect. Emperor Xuānzong also demoted other officials who were considered complicit or negligent in Wu Xiang's death, and posthumously stripped Li Shen's offices. Emperor Xuānzong's dislike for Li Deyu was so intense that when the imperial official Ding Rouli (丁柔立), whom Li Deyu had not favored, submitted a petition to defend Li Deyu, Ding was nevertheless considered an associate of Li Deyu's and demoted to be a county sheriff, while Cui Jia (崔嘏), whose draft of the imperial edict condemning Li Deyu was considered to be insufficiently harsh in its wording, was demoted to be a prefectural prefect. Further, the general Shi Xiong, whom Li Deyu had recommended during the campaign against Liu Zhen, was denied a military governor position when he requested one because of his association with Li Deyu.[14] By this point, the factional struggles between the Niu and Li Factions are considered to have largely come to their end.[15]