Attack on Fatima's house

In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death in 11/632, the Ansar (Medinan Muslims) gathered at the Saqifa (lit. 'courtyard') of the Banu Sa'ida clan.[12] The conventional wisdom is that they met to decide on a new leader for the Muslim community among themselves. For Madelung, however, the absence of the Muhajirun (Meccan Muslims) from this meeting suggests that the Ansar gathered to re-establish their control over their city Medina, under the belief that the Muhajirun would mostly return to Mecca after Muhammad's death.[13][14] Abu Bakr and Umar, both companions of Muhammad, were tipped off about the meeting and arrived there with Abu Ubayda,[14] as the only representatives of the Muhajirun.[15] After a heated session, in which a chief of the Ansar was beaten into submission by Umar, those gathered at the Saqifa agreed on Abu Bakr as the new head of the community.[16]

The Saqifa affair excluded Muhammad's family, who were preparing to bury him, and most of the Muhajirun.[15][17][18] Some of them opposed Abu Bakr, and the Sunni al-Baladhuri (d. 892) reports that the Banu Hashim (Muhammad's clan) and some of his companions gathered at Fatima's house in protest.[19][15] Among them were Muhammad's uncle Abbas and his companion Zubayr, according to Madelung.[15] The protesters, including Fatima, held that her husband Ali was the rightful successor to Muhammad,[3][1] possibly referring to Muhammad's announcement at the Ghadir Khumm.[20] Ali is said to have explained this position to Abu Bakr,[21][22] or to his representatives.[23] Ali and Fatima are also said to have visited the Ansar at their homes and appealed for their support.[24]

Soon after the Saqifa meeting, Abu Bakr reportedly tasked his ally Umar with securing Ali's pledge of allegiance.[25][22] As related by the Sunni al-Tabari (d. 923),[26] the latter led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters would not pay their allegiance to Abu Bakr.[22][3][27][28] Here, al-Tabari writes that Umar shouted, "By God, either you come out to render the oath of allegiance [to Abu Bakr], or I will set the house on fire."[29][30] The scene soon grew violent, and Zubayr was disarmed and carried away.[26][31] According to al-Tabari, Zubayr had come out of the house with his sword drawn but tripped on something and was then attacked.[32]

The mob retreated without Ali's pledge after Fatima pleaded with them,[22] as related in the Sunni al-Imama wa al-siyasa,[33] and by the proto-Shia al-Ya'qubi,[34][35] though Fatima is absent in the account of the Sunni al-Tabari.[35] Alternatively, al-Baladhuri states that Ali capitulated and pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr immediately after Umar's threat.[36] In contrast, the canonical Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim relate that Ali pledged to Abu Bakr after Fatima died some time later.[37] Soufi comments that none except one of the traditions cited by al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri has a chain of transmission that reaches back to the time of the conflict.[38]

Madelung believes that Abu Bakr later placed a boycott on Ali and also on the Banu Hashim to abandon their support for Ali.[39] As a result, prominent men ceased to speak to Ali, according to a Sunni hadith attributed to Aisha.[39] Hazleton similarly writes that Ali prayed alone even in the mosque.[40] Jafri adds that those who initially supported Ali gradually turned away and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr.[41] It appears that only his wife Fatima and their four young children remained on his side, writes Hazleton,[42] in line with a statement to this effect attributed to Ali in Nahj al-balagha.[43] At the same time, Ali had already turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate,[44] including an offer from Abu Sufyan,[45] which led Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989) to conclude that Ali had no interest in the caliphate.[45] In contrast, Momen, Jafri (d. 2019), and Ayoub (d. 2021) suggest that Ali rejected these divisive offers, fearing the destruction of the nascent Islam.[46][47][48] Momen adds that any remaining support for the caliphate of Ali melted away as he refused to advance his claims.[49]

Umar has been noted for his severity and misogyny,[50][51][25] especially in Shia sources.[52] "Umar's toughness" (shidda) is cited in a Sunni tradition by Aisha as the reason Umar was excluded from a supposed attempt at reconciliation between Ali and Abu Bakr.[53] Kelen describes an incident of Umar's violence against his sister when she professed Islam before Umar.[54] According to Madelung, Umar's reputation for "harsh treatment of women" was why Umm Kulthum bint Ali resisted his marriage proposal.[55]

Perhaps the earliest and most detailed Shia account of Umar's raid appears in the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays (lit. 'book of Sulaym ibn Qays').[58] The attribution of this collection of Shia hadiths to Sulaym, who might have been a close companion of Ali,[59] is often rejected by Sunnis.[60] On the other hand, when asked about it, the fifth Imam, Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 114/732), is said to have confirmed the authenticity of the book.[59] Nevertheless, there is no consensus among Shia theologians about the reliability of the whole book.[61][60] After analyzing the text, Modarresi is of the view that the core of the text has been preserved and dates back to before 138 AH, while some parts of the book might be more recent, such as its prediction of black banners arriving from the East before the collapse of the Umayyads.[62] At the same time, such instances of anachronism have been viewed by the Shia as prophesies on the part of the prophet and the Shia Imams, notes Khetia.[62]

Much of the post-Saqifa account in the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays is similar to (Sunni) historical sources,[63] but the book also contains explicit details of a raid led by an impatient Umar on Fatima's house after multiple failed attempts to subdue Ali.[52] The account is narrated on the authority of Salman (d. c. 32/653), a close companion of both the prophet and Ali. In the final standoff, according to this account, Fatima refused the mob entry into the house, after which an enraged Umar ignored Fatima's pleas and set the door on fire, pushing his way into the house. Upon Fatima's resistance, the account describes that Umar physically assaulted her with a sheathed sword. The mob soon overpowered Ali and dragged him away, striking Fatima again as she tried to prevent it. The account states that Fatima still carried the bruises from this raid when she died soon after.[64][65]

Soufi notes that a slightly different version of the book also contains a reference to Fatima's miscarriage, while another condensed version only mentions Umar's role in the event. In all versions, it is Ali or Fatima who argue with Abu Bakr and Umar about the rights of the Ahl al-Bayt.[66]

Kitab al-Kafi is a canonical collection of Twelver hadiths compiled by al-Kulayni (d. 329/941). The book contains a tradition ascribed to the seventh Imam, Musa al-Kazim (d. 183/799), which describes Fatima as a (female) martyr (shahida). This hadith is narrated on the authority of a brother of al-Kazim with the name of Ali ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is regarded as a prolific and trustworthy narrator and a mainstream Shia. As a result, this tradition is viewed as authoritative and authentic in Twelver scholarly circles.[67]

Kamil al-ziyarat was compiled by al-Qummi (d. 368/977), a distinguished Twelver traditionist. The book includes a hadith ascribed to the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765), in which the prophet was informed during the Isra about the violent deaths of his family at the hands of Muslims. For his daughter Fatima, the report mentions her miscarriage and death because of her injuries during a raid on her house.[68] This tradition is reported on the authority of Hammad ibn Uthman, a well-known companion of al-Sadiq and a mainstream Shia. As a result, this tradition is again viewed as authentic in Twelver hadith circles.[69]

According to Khetia, this book contains the earliest reference to Fatima's miscarriage during Umar's raid.[70] Alternatively, Soufi notes that a slightly different version of the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays already refers to Fatima's miscarriage during the attack.[66] Aside from these works, multiple sources record a fifth child of Fatima, named Muhsin,[71] though Sunni sources maintain that he died in infancy.[3][72]

Al-Ya'qubi (d. 284/897[73]) describes a raid on Fatima's house led by Abu Bakr and Umar, writing that Ali came out with a sword but was overpowered. The mob then entered the house but left after Fatima threatened to cry to God for help. He also cites Abu Bakr's regret on his deathbed for breaking into Fatima's house.[74] Al-Ya'qubi lists Muhsin among the children of Fatima without alluding to miscarriage.[71]

This work was compiled by al-Mufid (d. 413/1022), another prominent Twelver theologian. Therein, al-Mufid only mentions the Shia belief in the miscarriage of Muhsin without referring to Umar or listing any traditions to support this belief. Considering that al-Mufid writes about violence against Fatima elsewhere, Khetia suspects that he refrained in his Kitab al-Irshad from controversial topics to render the book accessible to most Twelvers without provoking the anger of Sunnis.[75]

In his Dala'il al-imama, Ibn Rustam (4/11 century) includes a tradition from Ja'far al-Sadiq on the authority of Abu Basir, a prolific transmitter of hadith and a close companion of the sixth Imam. The rest of the chain of transmission includes some of the most prominent Shia authorities, and this hadith is thus viewed as reliable. The content of the hadith is very similar to the account found in the Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays, except that it adds that Fatima lost Muhsin when she was struck by a client of Umar, named Qunfudh, rather than Umar himself.[2]

The influential Ibn Babawayh (d. 991) narrates in his book a long hadith, attributed to Muhammad,[76] in which he predicts the plight of Fatima after his death, "her sanctity shall be violated, her rights usurped, her inheritance denied and her troubles multiplied. She shall lose her child [through miscarriage], all the while crying out, 'O my Muhammad,' but no one will come to her aid." The hadith adds that she would be consoled by Mary in her final illness, that she would meet her father after her death "heavy with grief, persecuted and martyred," and that Muhammad would pray to God to punish those who wronged her.[77]

Madelung is uncertain about the use of force. Still, he notes that there is evidence (in Sunni sources) that Fatima's house was searched. According to Madelung, Ali later repeatedly said that he would have resisted (Abu Bakr) had there been forty men with him.[26][83] Alternatively, Buehler suggests that the allegations of violence should be treated with caution as they reflect the political agendas of the time.[3] In contrast, Veccia Vaglieri is of the view that the Shia allegations are based on facts, even if they have been exaggerated.[7] Abbas writes that some well-regarded Sunni sources mention Umar's raid and Fatima's injuries.[4]

Khetia believes that there are known instances where sensitive information about the incident has been censored by Sunni authors, such as the prominent jurist Abu Ubayd al-Salam (d. 837), who was possibly concerned with the righteous representation of Muhammad's companions.[6] Similar allegations have emerged against al-Tabari and al-Mas'udi (d. 956),[84] though the latter has also been accused of Shia tendencies.[85] Along these lines, Lucas and Soufi both note the Sunni tendency to minimize and neutralize the conflicts among companions after Muhammad,[86][87] particularly about the Saqifa affair,[6][88][89] while these conflicts might have been amplified in Shia records.[88]

Both al-Tabari and al-Mas'udi note that Abu Bakr regretted the events after Saqifa on his deathbed.[84] In particular, al-Tabari writes that Abu Bakr wished he had "never opened Fatima's house to anything, even though they had locked it as a gesture of defiance."[36] This appears to be a sensitive admission that has been censored by the Sunni author Abu Ubayd al-Salam in his Kitab al-amwal.[6] It is likely that al-Tabari too has concealed parts of the admission because al-Mas'udi writes in his report that, "He [Abu Bakr] recalled that [event] in many words [at length]," even though this author also suppresses recollections of Abu Bakr.[84] The caliph's regret is also cited by al-Ya'qubi (d. 897-8), who sympathized with the cause of Alids.[74] In his account, Abu Bakr wished he had "not searched the house of Fatima, daughter of the Messenger of God, or allowed men to enter it, even it was shut with the purpose of inciting war."[90]