1 Wall Street

Entrance to 1 Wall Street

1 Wall Street's facade is made primarily of limestone.[21][22][23] This contrasts with the brick facades of Walker's telecommunications buildings, the use of which was likely influenced by Dutch and German Expressionism.[21][24] At the time of 1 Wall Street's construction, limestone was a relatively expensive material and was rarely used for a building's entire facade, with cheaper brick being used instead.[25] 1 Wall Street also contains numerous setbacks on its exterior. Though setbacks in New York City skyscrapers were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution in order to allow light and air to reach the streets below,[20][26] they later became a defining feature of the Art Deco style.[27] The facade contains uninterrupted vertical piers, similar to other Art Deco buildings. Although the piers emphasize the building's height, Walker said this effect was not the main goal of his design.[23]

The original 1931 building is on the northern portion of the site. The first twenty stories occupy almost the entire site.[25][28] The building contains a series of small setbacks starting at the 21st story[11][16][29] and continuing until the 35th story, above which a slender tower rises.[11][16] The setbacks on the Broadway and Wall Street elevations alternate with each other.[14] The southern portion of the original building rises as high as a dormer on the 37th floor, though the 36th floor is the highest story that also connects to the annex.[16] The original structure measures 179 feet (55 m) on Broadway by 102 feet (31 m) on Wall Street.[11][30][31] The tower stories, from the 37th to the 48th floors, measure 60 by 80 feet (18 by 24 m) each.[29] The top two stories constituted an executive penthouse.[32][33]

Walker emphasized the design of the building's facade, rather than the massing, as was done for other early-20th-century skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan.[14] The facade contains several decorative elements that make it appear as an organic design, rather than a machine-produced design.[21] The facade has indented vertical bays with fluting that are arranged like curtains,[10][12][21][34] although it could also resemble a cliff-like natural shape from different angles.[28] Walker said the building would "have 200 thousand people looking at it from all sides" in a single year, including workers and pedestrians, and he wanted them to have "mental relief and pleasure" when looking at the building.[21][35][36] Walker also said he "tried to superimpose one rhythm upon a basic rhythm"; as such, he treated the facade as a series of "rhythmic motifs" in different sizes.[11][37][38] The resulting concave bays were angled inward at a pitch of 1:9.[36] Each of the bays is separated by curved, projecting piers that rise to each setback.[37][39] Several piers also contain vertical incisions for emphasis.[40] The windows of the original building contained custom curved frames to fit into the facade,[34][9] which added $40,000 to the construction cost.[36]

The base of the original building is composed of the lowest three stories. The section of the base along Wall Street is eight bays wide, with a double-width entrance in the middle of the Wall Street facade, which is reached by a short flight of stairs and leads to the main lobby.[40] The entryway is framed by a jagged portal.[10] The sections of the base on Broadway and New Street are seventeen bays wide.[40] On the New Street elevation, the name "Voorhees, Gmelin & Walker" is printed in cursive script.[41] There is an exposed granite basement on New Street with a service entrance.[42] On the upper floors, each of the bays has a single sash window on each floor.[40] The northwestern and northeastern corners of the building both contain chamfers,[23][40] which visually connect the west, north, and east elevations of the facade.[23]

The southern annex, completed in 1965, is also mostly made of limestone.[11] On the New Street side, there are setbacks above the 5th and 10th floors; the building then rises as a slender slab with setbacks on the 29th, 34th, and 35th floors.[16] Along Broadway, the facade of the annex was originally recessed behind that of the original building by two bays.[40]

In 2018, an entrance to the retail space was constructed in front of the annex;[43] the entrance is clad with glass.[43][44] The entrance structure ranges between one and seven stories high. The facade of the 2018 addition projects forward to the facade of the original structure.[16] Five stories were also built atop the initial portion of the annex.[45] In total, according to zoning documents, the annex measures 180 feet (55 m) on Broadway and 132.5 feet (40.4 m) on Exchange Place.[16]

The building contains 10 elevators as of 2019,[46][47] compared with 43 elevators and 14 escalators prior to the residential conversion.[2] When built, 1 Wall Street contained 29 elevators,[11][48] some of which were near the building's exterior walls.[47] Irving Trust had six private elevators,[48] accessed from Wall Street.[49] The rest of the building contained three groups of elevators, serving the lower, intermediate, or upper floors;[50] these elevators could be reached from Broadway, New Street, or the subway.[49] Because the New Street side of the building was lower than the Broadway side,[51] engineers configured the original elevator shafts so that double-deck elevators could be installed if necessary,[48][51] but these double-deck elevators were never built.[52] At its completion, 1 Wall Street was the first office structure in Lower Manhattan to use alternating current for electric power. It contained a network of pneumatic tubes for sending documents between floors.[11]

There is 1,165,645 sq ft (108,292 m²) of interior space,[1] of which the original building had 500,000 square feet (46,000 m²) of floor space.[9][50][53] The original building's first through 21st stories each contained 15,000 square feet (1,400 m²).[9] There are also five basement levels under the original structure, three of which were below sea level.[50][54] A corridor inside 1 Wall Street's basement, stretching between Broadway and New Street, provided access to the northbound platform of the Wall Street station,[55][56] but it was converted to a communications room by 2000.[57] Upon the building's opening, Irving Trust occupied the basements, lowest ten floors, and uppermost three floors of 1 Wall Street.[11][53][58][59] Following its 2018–2021 conversion, 1 Wall Street contained 678,000 square feet (63,000 m²) of residential space and 166,000 square feet (15,400 m²) of commercial space.[60]

External video
Tour an Art Deco Masterpiece, The Daily 360 , The New York Times

At ground level is the Red Room, a large space with a ceiling stretching 33 feet (10 m)[61] or 37 feet (11 m) high.[40] The Red Room measures 100 feet (30 m) long, stretching between the western and eastern facades, and 40 feet (12 m) wide.[13][50] Walker and his associate Perry Coke Smith designed the room, while Hildreth Meière was hired as a "color consultant".[13][37] The space functioned as a reception room rather than as a banking room,[11][50][62] and was accessed primarily from Wall Street.[59] As such, the Red Room had no tellers' counters. Lewis Pierson of Irving Trust described the Red Room as a place "where we shall meet our customers and friends".[62] The eastern wall had desks for the brokers' loan officers, while the western wall contained desks for the officers of Irving Trust's city office.[63]

Just inside the Wall Street entrance is a foyer that runs between Broadway and New Street, with two polygonal piers.[63] The floor was made of red terrazzo tiles.[28][37] Walker and Smith personally supervised the creation of the floor tiles in Berlin.[37] The walls and ceilings are decorated with 8,911 square feet (827.9 m²) of mosaics designed by Meiere and manufactured by the Ravenna Mosaic Company in Long Island City and in Berlin.[53][61][64] The color scheme of the mosaic ranges from red-on-blue on the walls to gold-on-black on the ceiling.[28][63] The mosaic gradually becomes lighter near the ceiling, thus drawing visitors' attention toward the ceiling. The mosaic also contains abstract gold patterns.[65] The remainder of the walls are made of Pyrenees black marble, and the columns are made of Verona red marble; a similar design was used in the Stockholm City Hall.[37][53][59] The ceiling had an allegorical painting measuring 20 by 66 feet (6.1 by 20.1 m), depicting the influence of wealth on the creation of beauty.[52][53][59] Meiere and Kimon Nicolaïdes designed the painting.[52][66] When the annex was built, the expanded lobby floor was clad in travertine, and the original lobby's ceiling was covered with a dropped ceiling.[52]

The entrances on Broadway and New Street led to a separate lobby on the ground floor, which in turn connected directly to the building's elevators.[49] This lobby contained walls made of Pyrenees black marble.[59]

As with other early-20th-century skyscrapers in the Financial District, the lower stories had large floor areas for the building's primary tenant, Irving Trust, while the upper stories were smaller and were rented to other companies.[67] Irving Trust occupied the first ten stories,[11] using their large floor areas to house its clerical staff.[68] The second floor originally contained Irving Trust's Wall Street office, which served businesses in the Financial District.[69] The third floor was for the bank's corporate and personal trust divisions.[69][68] The fifth floor contained the bank's executive offices, wainscoted with wood from around the world, while the sixth floor accommodated the out-of-town and foreign divisions and a telephone room for long-distance calls.[69] The 10th through 45th floors were rented to outside tenants.[11][50][52] Voorhees, Gmelin & Walker were not responsible for the layout of the offices, instead hiring specialists for that task.[70] Architectural firms also designed some of the offices; for example, the Fiduciary Trust Company's 30th-story offices were designed by Delano and Aldrich, while the offices on the 31st story were designed by Cross & Cross.[71] Generally, law firms and financial firms leased entire stories for themselves.[72] These included brokerage house Bear Stearns, which hired H. J. Horvath & Company and designer W. A. Zwicke to subdivide its 10th-floor space into various offices and other rooms.[73]

Irving Trust's dining room was on the 46th floor. The directors' room, on the 47th floor, contained 18-foot-high (5.5 m) wooden wainscoting, as well as directors' chairs arranged in a semicircle.[48] The stories above it had dining spaces and a three-story observation lounge; these spaces contained Art Deco furnishings.[37][52] The executive lounge, at the 49th story, had a ceiling made of gold-leaf seashells,[22][32][74] as well as walls covered with multicolored patterned fabrics.[32][75] The executive lounge also had a triple-height ceiling, fluted walls, teak floors, and a fireplace,[76] as well as four full-height windows that faced each of the cardinal directions.[32] The walls were also decorated with depictions of Native American war bonnets.[28]

After 1 Wall Street's residential conversion, there have been 566 condominium apartments, of which 304 are studios and one-bedroom units. Forty-seven of the condominiums have private decks.[46][47][61] There are also amenities such as a 75-foot (23 m) indoor swimming pool, 39th-floor observation deck, library, golf simulator, dog spa, and playroom.[44][47][61] These amenities are mostly clustered in the annex.[43] The upper three floors were converted into a three-story penthouse apartment with 12,965 square feet (1,204.5 m²), four bedrooms and four bathrooms, as well as a private library and chef's kitchen.[60][61]

Irving Trust's bank vault, weighing 5,000 short tons (4,500 long tons; 4,500 t),[59] was located 69 to 72 feet (21 to 22 m) below ground level. At the time of the building's 1931 completion, the vault was the second-largest in the city and third-largest in the world, behind those of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York Building and the Bank of England.[34][53][77] The vault was encased on three sides by a 6-foot-thick (1.8 m) wall composed of iron, steel, and concrete;[53][59][77] the fourth side was composed of 3 feet (0.91 m) of concrete and a thick layer of metal.[59] The vault had three stories, of which the top level was used by safe-deposit customers, and the lower floors stored Irving Trust's own fortunes.[11][59][78] Each story had 2,700 square feet (250 m²) of space.[11][78][79] There were six vault doors,[80] each measuring 30 inches (760 mm) thick;[80][81] the doors were laced with chemicals that reportedly emitted "paralyzing fumes" if a robber tried to open the door using a blowtorch.[81] The two main doors on the upper level, and one door on each of the other levels, weighed 45 short tons (40 long tons; 41 t) each.[80] A tank of water, as well as modern chemical, electrical, and mechanical features, were used to prevent potential break-ins.[77][80][82]

Since the settlement of New Amsterdam in the 17th century, only three buildings on the northern portion of the current skyscraper's site had carried the address 1 Wall Street. The first was a 17th-century stone house, and the second was built in the 19th century.[83][84] The third such structure was an 18-story office building built in 1907 and designed by St. Louis-based firm Barnett, Haynes & Barnett.[85][86] The structure was known as the "Chimney Building"[87][88] or the "'chimney corner' building",[89] and its footprint measured only 29 by 39 feet (8.8 by 11.9 m).[90][91] The Chimney Building was developed by a syndicate from St. Louis, headed by Festus Wade of the St. Louis Mercantile Trust Company.[87] In mid-1905, the company paid $700,000 for the 1,131-square-foot (105.1 m²) plot, or an average of $576 per square foot ($6,200/m²).[92][93] The next year, the syndicate announced that it would start erecting an 18-story structure at 1 Wall Street.[94] The Chimney Building was completed in 1907,[91] and for years afterward, its site was regarded as the world's most valuable.[88]

Adjoining the Chimney Building were five other structures: a 20-story building at 74 Broadway, the 15-story Union Trust Building at 80 Broadway, and three other buildings of between 10 and 12 stories. The oldest of these was the Union Trust Building, which was erected in 1889 and had 8-foot-thick (2.4 m) masonry walls because engineers of the time did not know how much steel the building required.[95] One of the twelve-story structures surrounded the Chimney Building, and in 1926, this structure and the Chimney Building were sold to a syndicate of bankers.[88] The writer Washington Irving, the namesake of the Irving Trust Company, had occupied a house at 3 Wall Street several years before the building's development.[9][96]

The southern half of the block contained two structures: the Manhattan Life Insurance Building on the north and the Knickerbocker Trust Company Building to the south. The 18-story Manhattan Life Building, completed in 1894, was located in the middle of the block at 64 Broadway.[97] The Manhattan Life Building was slightly extended north in 1904 to encompass all lots between 64 and 70 Broadway.[98]

The Knickerbocker Trust Company bought the land immediately south of the Manhattan Life Building in early 1906,[99] and finalized building plans the next year.[100] The 22-story Knickerbocker Trust building at 60 Broadway was completed in 1909[101] and contained a ground-floor banking room, a private penthouse restaurant, and eight elevators.[99] There was a 23-foot-wide (7.0 m) space between the Manhattan Life and Knickerbocker Trust buildings.[99] A 10-inch (250 mm) strip of land on the northern side of the gap was sold to John E. Schermerhorn in 1912.[102] The Schermerhorn family subsequently built an eight-story structure at 62 Broadway, within the gap.[103]

Looking east from Rector Street

The idea for the current skyscraper was attributed to Irving Trust president Harry Ward.[104] Irving Trust, founded in 1851, had merged with numerous other banks in preceding years,[105] and had outgrown its offices in 60 Broadway, the Equitable Building, and the Woolworth Building.[106] At the time of the proposal, the bank was known as American Exchange Irving Trust, having merged in 1926 with the American Exchange-Pacific National Bank.[107] During the mid- and late 1920s, many Art Deco office buildings were constructed in New York City, peaking around 1929 and 1930.[106][108] Additionally, banks in Manhattan were clustering around Wall Street, and the corner of Broadway and Wall Street was seen as a valuable location.[109][110]

By April 1928, the Central Union Trust Company controlled the buildings from 64 to 80 Broadway, and reportedly planned to build a 36-story structure at the site of the Chimney Building.[111] The following month, American Exchange Irving Trust bought the Chimney Building along with three adjacent structures at 7 Wall Street, and 74 and 80 Broadway, in exchange for $5.5 million in cash and a $9 million mortgage.[89][30][31] The transaction cost approximately $725 per square foot ($7,800/m²).[30] Following the sale, the Central Union Trust Company moved to the Manhattan Life Building[89] and modified the structures at 60, 62, and 70 Broadway.[112]

Immediately after the purchase, Irving Trust announced it would erect an office building on the site.[113][114] This announcement occurred amid an increase in the number of large banks in New York City.[114] The company's board of directors founded a sub-committee for construction oversight, and several Irving Trust employees formed the One Wall Street Unit to coordinate logistical planning for the new skyscraper. Thirty-five potential architects were identified and interviewed extensively.[31] Ultimately, in June 1928, Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker were hired to design the structure,[115] and Marc Eidlitz was hired as builder.[31] Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker filed plans with the Manhattan Bureau of Buildings the next month.[116] The initial plans, known as Scheme B1,[113] called for a 46- or 52-story building[113][116] on a plot of 178 by 101 feet (54 by 31 m).[116] The plans called for two banking rooms at ground level.[113]

An August 1928 memorandum between the architects and Irving Trust prompted several changes to the plans. Among those were separate elevators for bank employees and rental tenants; the removal of retail spaces and luncheon clubs; and the addition of a common reception lobby.[117] In October 1928, local newspapers reported that Irving Trust had accepted "final plans" for a 44-story building rising 560 feet (170 m).[110][118] This design resembled the current structure, with setbacks and a curving facade.[119] The actual final plans, filed in June 1929, provided for a 50-story structure.[31] The 1929 plans were released after Irving Trust applied for, and received, a zoning variance that allowed the base's first setback to be higher than would normally be allowed. The variance also allowed for a shallower setback, and the tower was allowed to cover more than 25 percent of the lot, the maximum lot coverage ratio typically allowed under the 1916 Zoning Resolution.[29]

Construction on the site of 1 Wall Street began in May 1929[90][120][54] with the demolition of the four buildings on the northern portion of the site.[90] Several engineering professors from Columbia University were hired as consultants for the demolition process.[121] Work was complicated by the fact that one of the previous buildings on the site had extremely sturdy walls ranging from 4 to 10 feet (1.2 to 3.0 m) thick.[122] Excavations began in July 1930,[54] and work on the building itself began that August.[11] The ceremonial cornerstone was laid on January 15, 1930.[54][123][124] During the construction process, nearby structures such as Trinity Church were shored up.[11] In March 1930, Irving Trust signed an agreement with the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, at the time one of the operators of the city's subway system, to build three new entrances to the Wall Street station on Broadway and another entrance in 1 Wall Street's basement.[125] The project also employed timekeepers and auditors, who checked employees' attendance, as well as job runners, who delivered architectural drawings and ensured that materials were delivered.[126]

The frame involved the installation of 250,000 rivets and was completed within five months of the groundbreaking without any serious incidents.[127][128] During December 1929, Ward sent engraved letters to 500 nearby property owners, apologizing for the noise created during the riveting process; this generated positive publicity for the building in both the local and national press.[129] When the steel frame topped out on May 12, 1930, workers hoisted an evergreen tree to the top of the frame. While the workers were securing the final rivets, a hot steel rivet fell from the building's top and hit a truck below, narrowly missing the truck driver's head and causing a small fire on the street.[127][128] The exterior was completed by August 1930.[50] Several hundred boxcars were used to transport the building's Indiana Limestone to New York City;[lower-alpha 2] according to railroad workers, it was the largest-ever such order.[34] Before being used in the building, the limestone blocks went to a workshop in Long Island City, where they were carved to meet the building's specifications.[11][34]

By December 1930, Irving Trust announced that 80 percent of the space had been leased in the nearly-completed building.[58] Tenants started moving into 1 Wall Street by mid-March 1931, before its formal opening. Among the tenants were several members of the New York Stock Exchange and Curb Exchange.[130] The Irving Trust Company moved into the building on March 23, 1931. Two hundred guards armed with machine guns moved the bank's $8 billion holdings from its former location at the Woolworth Building.[77][131][132] The same day, 1 Wall Street opened to public use, with thousands of visitors.[133][134] By that time, the building was 90 percent occupied.[132] Shortly afterward, the Fiduciary Trust Company of New York also moved its banking quarters to the 30th floor, making that space the highest banking quarters in New York City.[135][136] In a 1938 incident, an electrical transformer on the 21st-story setback blew up; though the windows were shaken, nobody was injured.[137][138] An air-conditioning system was installed at 1 Wall Street in 1953.[139]

The original building soon became too small to accommodate the operations of Irving Trust and its tenants. Accordingly, in 1961, Irving Trust purchased the three buildings at 60, 62, and 70 Broadway from Hanover Bank, thereby giving Irving Trust control of the entire block between Broadway, Wall Street, New Street, and Exchange Place.[140][141] The company initially anticipated that the annex would cost $25 million.[142][143] Voorhees, Walker Smith Smith & Haines were hired to design the annex,[144] while Turner Construction was hired as the main contractor.[145] By mid-1963, the site had been cleared;[144] in preparation of the work, Irving Trust took a sublease at 2 Broadway.[146] To finance construction, Irving Trust sold the building to a subsidiary, which then sold $30 million of secured notes to investors.[147] Renovations also took place in the original building; tenants continued to use 1 Wall Street during construction, but the vault in the basement was emptied. A refrigeration plant was installed on the annex's roof to provide air-conditioning to both buildings,[148] and cooling machinery was also installed in the basement.[149] The project was finished by late 1965.[150]

Cornerstone, modified to contain the words "The Bank of New York"

By 1980, Irving Trust had decided to relocate its operations center to another building near the World Trade Center.[96] Between 1987 and 1988, Irving Trust was negotiating to merge with the Bank of New York, which at the time was headquartered nearby at 48 Wall Street.[42] Irving Trust initially rejected buy-out offers from the Bank of New York because the latter had "undervalued" Irving Trust's assets such as 1 Wall Street.[151] By October 1988, with a merger imminent, Irving Trust placed 1 Wall Street for auction; at the time, the building was valued at $250 million.[152] The Bank of New York then acquired Irving Trust in December 1988.[153][154] BNY decided to sell its old headquarters at 48 Wall Street[154] and relocate its headquarters to 1 Wall Street.[155]

BNY Mellon opened a museum on the 10th floor in 1998, which was dedicated to the history of both banks. During the same time, BNY Mellon hired Hoffmann Architects to conduct mortar repair and window replacements.[52] While 1 Wall Street was not damaged following the September 11 attacks at the nearby World Trade Center in 2001, BNY Mellon's operations were disrupted, and 1 Wall Street had to be cleaned up.[156]

By January 2014, BNY Mellon was looking to sell its headquarters, as it was moving to a location with less space.[157] In May 2014, BNY Mellon sold the building to a joint venture led by Harry B. Macklowe's Macklowe Properties for $585 million,[158][159][160] though BNY Mellon continued to occupy the building until September 2015.[161] Macklowe added up to 174,000 square feet (16,200 m²) of retail space at the base.[47][162] He initially planned to make 1 Wall Street a mixed-use residential and office building,[163][164] and he planned to rent out 65 percent of the residences.[46] In early 2017, Macklowe changed these plans so that it would be almost entirely residential condominiums, since an all-residential building, owned by its tenants, would require less debt.[163][164] Macklowe Properties partnered with former Prime Minister of Qatar Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani in a bid to convert the office property into 566 condos with retail at the base.[165] The renovation was originally supposed to be undertaken by Robert A.M. Stern Architects, though it was replaced by the firm SLCE Architects.[47] Deutsche Bank provided $750 million in debt for the conversion.[165]

As part of the renovation, 34 elevators and 16 escalators were removed.[166] The original layout of the building included elevators near the perimeter wall, but this took up usable space near windows. As such, Macklowe removed 20 of the elevators that served upper floors and added 10 new elevators in the building core; new stairs were also constructed to replace the existing stairs.[47][161][45] The demolition of the interior was completed in November 2018.[167] In addition, the Red Room was restored between 2016 and 2018, in advance of its conversion into a retail space.[47][162][168] The Red Room's restoration used tiles that had been placed in storage and unused when the building was originally erected.[168] The third floor was demolished to make a higher ceiling for the retail space.[45] A new entrance was also constructed on Broadway, with a design based on one of Walker's unrealized plans for the building,[43] and five stories were added to the southern annex.[45]

1 Wall Street's glass addition

Whole Foods Market leased a 44,000-square-foot (4,100 m²) storefront in 2016,[169][170] and Life Time Fitness signed a 74,000-square-foot (6,900 m²) lease for a gym on the lowest four floors in 2019.[171] The residential units, the Red Room, and Whole Foods were then all planned to open in 2021.[162][172] Macklowe had originally hired Core Real Estate to market the apartments. However, he replaced Core with Compass in December 2020,[173] prompting Core to sue Macklowe for unpaid brokerage fees.[174] The facades of the annex's additions had been completed by mid-2021,[175] and sales of residential units were launched in September 2021.[176] By March 2022, Macklowe and Al Thani planned to refinance 1 Wall Street for $1.1 billion, using the proceeds to pay off construction costs and outstanding debt.[177][178] At that point, the renovation was projected to be completed by the end of 2022.[178] The building's retail space was nearly complete by mid-2022,[179] and French retailer Printemps announced it would open a store at 1 Wall Street.[180][181] In addition, Macklowe Properties began exhibiting model apartments to prospective residents in 2022.[182] By February 2023, the first residents were scheduled to move into the building the next month.[183]

• 1 Wall Street Building (PDF) (Report). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. March 13, 2001.
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• "Irving Trust Company Opens New Building". Bankers' Magazine. Vol. 122, no. 5. May 1931. p. 695. ProQuest 124378200.
• Robins, Anthony W. (2017). New York Art Deco: A Guide to Gotham's Jazz Age Architecture. Excelsior Editions. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-6396-4. OCLC 953576510.
• Stern, Robert A. M.; Gilmartin, Patrick; Mellins, Thomas (1987). New York 1930: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Two World Wars. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-3096-1. OCLC 13860977.
• Walker, Ralph T. (May 1930). "The Relation of Skyscrapers To Our Life". Architectural Forum. Vol. 52, no. 689–695.