Operation Sky Shield

In late July 1960, the Department of Defense gave airlines an eight-week notice that it would mobilize an unprecedented number of combat aircraft in a training exercise so vast that it could succeed only if civil aircraft did not interfere and that the airlines should adjust their schedules accordingly and notify their reservation holders.[3] An estimated 1,000 U.S. commercial flights carrying around 37,000 passengers, and 700 general aviation aircraft were affected by this exercise. To comply with this, Canada had 310 flights with 3,000 passengers affected, and 31 foreign flights scheduled to land in North America were canceled.[2] William B. Becker of the Air Transport Association (ATA) wrote that an "Estimated cost figures from only nine of the many air carriers affected totaled approximately one-half million dollars." (equivalent to $4,950,000 in 2022)[3]

Operation Sky Shield took place as planned on September 10, 1960 from 1:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m. CDT.[2] The operation included 1,129 fighter scrambles which were flown by approximately 360 interceptors against the Strategic Air Command (SAC) strike force of B-47 Stratojets and B-52 Stratofortresses, which simulated an "enemy" (Soviet) force of 310 bombers.[3]

The response after the operation from the FAA and ATA was they would continue to support NORAD. William Becker said "The airlines will continue to cooperate to the fullest extent where military requirements dictate the necessity. In the event that an exercise of the magnitude of Sky Shield is justified in the future, we strongly urge that a minimum of 90 days’ advance notice be given. The exercise should be conducted on Saturday night-Sunday morning of a three-day holiday weekend."[3] The American public also responded well, and when given a reasonable amount of time to reschedule their flights were fully understanding and supportive of the military defense operations.[3] However, John Diefenbaker who was the Canadian prime minister at the time of the operation objected to Sky Shield, and repeatedly shared his objections until Americans called off the operation on September 15.[4]

Contrary to some reports, RAF Vulcan B2s did not participate in Sky Shield 1. See Media Coverage below.

Planning for Sky Shield II was more organized than the first operation. In August 1961, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association published an article in its Pilot Magazine saying "Don’t Forget Sky Shield," and "If you’ve planned a flight for Oct. 14 or 15, better look at the clock before you take off."[3] An estimated 2,900 U.S. and Canadian flights, scheduled to carry around 125,000 passengers, were cancelled.[2]

Operation Sky Shield II occurred on October 14, 1961 from 11:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m.[2] It was one of the largest defense maneuvers ever held in the western world, and involved approximately 250 bombers against 250 missile sites and 1,800 fighter planes flying more than 6,000 sorties.[2] More than 50 U.S. fighter-interceptor squadrons participated, including those equipped with McDonnell F-101B Voodoos, Convair F-106 Delta Darts and F-102 Delta Daggers, Lockheed F-104 Starfighters, Northrop F-89J Scorpions, and Douglas F4D Skyrays.[3] Across the continent some 150,000 airfield and flying personnel and 50,000 more in close support would also play a part, spanning NORAD, the U.S. Air Force, Army, Navy, Air National Guard, and the Royal Canadian Air Force.[3] RAF Vulcans B2s participated in Sky Shield II, four from 27 Sqn (serials XJ824, XH555, XJ823, and one other), again flying from Kindley Air Force Base, Bermuda, and four aircraft from 83 Sqn flying from RAF Lossiemouth, in Scotland.[5] They simulated Russian heavy bombers operating at the highest altitude - 56,000 ft (17,000 m); above the United States Air Force (USAF) B-52 Stratofortresses at 35-42,000 ft and the lower level B-47 Stratojets. A 27 Sqn Vulcan, flying from Bermuda, successfully evaded the defending F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors, covered by the other three Vulcans providing jamming, and tracked round to the north, landing at Plattsburgh Air Force Base, New York.[6] The northern force attacking in a stream reported a single instance of radar contact by an interceptor and all four landed in Newfoundland.[7]

Sky Shield II phases were transmitted to Royal Canadian Air Force stations by secure media, but in case of intercept, not the details. Operations were given RCAF code names, and planning conferences included Trusted Agents. Final pre-event checklists were dubbed Double Take A or B. The harried, last moments: Fast Pace. The Go hour: Cocked Pistol. Various milestones were designated Big Noise A or B and so on, through Fade Out.[2]

A B-52 lost in the Atlantic Ocean accounted for the 8 lives lost during the exercise. On 15 October 1961, a search triangle 600 miles from New York was set up looking for the missing crew. A US Coast Guard (USCG) cutter reported seeing an orange flare at 12:15 a.m. on the 17 of October, but the eight crew members were eventually presumed lost at sea. These were the only casualties of the three operations.

General Laurence Kuter was quoted in media after Sky Shield II ranging from Air Force Magazine to the Chicago Tribune, calling Sky Shield II "the greatest exercise in information analysis, decision-making, and action-taking in continental aerospace defense in all our history."[3] But Kuter deflected calls for a score of the operation, reiterating that Sky Shield's intent was, "by no means, a contest between offensive and defensive forces."[3]

After the operation, NORAD produced an exhaustive report, presented it to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and then filed it in secure archives.[3] It wasn't until 1997 that most, but not all, of the Sky Shield results were declassified.[3] Conclusions showed that nearly one-half of enemy flights at low altitude had escaped detection, and of those initially detected, 40 percent then eluded tracking radar by changing their formation shape, size, or altitude. No more than one-fourth of bombers in Sky Shield II would have been intercepted.[3]

Sky Shield III, held on September 2, 1962 from 1:00 p.m. to 6:30 p.m.,[2] was North America's first test of procedures for clearing national civilian air traffic at short notice, such as would be done in the event of a Soviet attack. Hundreds of USAF trainers were used to simulate normal civil traffic levels and routes. The Air Force trainers launched 319 Lockheed T-33 light jets, 263 in the U.S. and 56 in Canada, from random and unannounced locations. As the alert horn sounded, Federal Aviation Administration controllers hustled to get them to civil airports far from the metropolitan targets that were presumed to be under mushroom clouds. All T-33s were on the ground in Canada within 49 minutes, and in the United States within 72 minutes.[3]

The closings for this operation were 1,800 scheduled airline flights in the United States, 130 more in Canada, and 31 foreign airlines. The total cost of these closings was estimated to be $1 million.[3]

Sky Shield IV was planned for 1963, but the Strategic Air Command (SAC) was against it and instead smaller exercises occurred called Top Rung that began in 1964.[2]

Pine Tree defense lines used by Canadian forces in Operation Sky Shield II

Fifteen Army National Guardsman Nike-Ajax missile bases in the northeast United States were to remain in stand-by mode, purely as practice because no missiles were to be fired during the exercise.[11]

Thirty Air National Guard interceptor squadrons were planned to patrol along the northern and southern perimeters of the United States as part of the NORAD defense system.[11]

United States Navy Airborne Early Warning Squadrons consisting of WV-2 Super Constellations and Navy picket ships were planned to be the first warning line in the NORAD defense system by being positioned on the outer ring of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean defense systems. The WV-2's would patrol the northern part of the oceans with their large fuel reserves while the picket ships escorted by destroyers would survey the southern part of the oceans with their long range radar systems.[11]

Protecting the Arctic Cap were the Canadians and their radar systems. Their Pinetree Line stations along the Distant Early Warning line, the Mid-Canadian line, and the U.S. border were also coordinating with the NORAD defense system.[11]

While there would be no participation by any planes south of the Mexican border the Aircraft Control and Warning bases located in the Gulf coast were all made aware of the operation and on stand-by.[11]

The estimated 1,880 U.S. civilian domestic and international air fleet were all to remain grounded during Operation Sky Shield II, in addition to the estimated 70,000 general aviation planes also located in the United States. In conformation with the Air Force's Security Control of Air Traffic plan all foreign air carriers would also be grounded from sending planes to the United States.[11]

FAA Administrator Najeeb Halaby commented that the Sky Shield grounding of all civilian air traffic was necessary to allow NORAD and SAC pilots full range of motion at all altitudes. He also noted that the use of radar jamming equipment by the attacking force would severely affect all civilian traffic and make them incapable of using their radar equipment to maneuver and land their planes.[11]

Other unnamed FAA officials commented and stated that there was a possibility of an enemy attack during the operation and that the NORAD defenders would be easily able to identify actual enemy aircraft from other participants in the operation.[11]