Eyalet

Eyalets (Ottoman Turkish: ایالت, pronounced [ejaːˈlet], English: State), also known as beylerbeyliks[1] or pashaliks, were a primary administrative division of the Ottoman Empire.

Not to be confused with Eyelet or Ayelet (disambiguation).
1730 map
1849 map
Two European maps of the Ottoman Empire. The first map describes the provinces as "beylerbeyliks", whereas the second describes them as "pashaliks"
The 1803 Cedid Atlas, showing the Middle Eastern eyalets
Eyalets of the Ottoman Empire in 1593

From 1453 to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman local government was loosely structured.[2] The empire was at first divided into states called eyalets, presided over by a beylerbey (title equivalent to duke in Turkish) of three tails (feathers borne on a state officer's ceremonial staff).[2] The grand vizier was responsible for nominating all the high officers of State, both in the capital and the states.[2] Between 1861 and 1866, these eyalets were abolished, and the territory was divided for administrative purposes into vilayets (provinces).[2]

The eyalets were subdivided into districts called livas or sanjaks,[3] each of which was under the charge of a pasha of one tail, with the title of mira-lira, or sanjak-bey.[4] These provinces were usually called pashaliks by Europeans.[4] The pasha was invested with powers of absolute government within his province, being the chief of both the military and financial departments, as well as police and criminal justice.[4]

At official functions, the order of precedence was Egypt, Baghdad, Abyssinia, Buda, Anatolia, "Mera'ish", and the Kapudan Pasha in Asia and Buda, Egypt, Abyssinia, Baghdad, and Rumelia in Europe, with the remainder arranged according to the chronological order of their conquest.[5]

Names

The term eyalet is sometimes translated province or governorate. Depending on the rank of the governor, they were also sometimes known as pashaliks (governed by a pasha), beylerbeyliks (governed by a bey or beylerbey), and kapudanliks (governed by a kapudan).

Pashaluk or Pashalik (Turkish: paşalık) is the abstract word derived from pasha, denoting the quality, office or jurisdiction of a pasha or the territory administered by him. In European sources, the word "pashalic" generally referred to the eyalets.[4]

The term 'eyalet' began to be applied to the largest administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire instead of beglerbegilik from the 1590s onward, and it continued to be used until 1867.[6]

History
Eyalets in 1609

Murad I instituted the great division of the sultanate into two beylerbeyiliks of Rumelia and Anatolia, in circa 1365.[7] With the eastward expansion of Bayezid's realms in the 1390s, a third eyalet, Rûm Eyalet, came into existence, with Amasya its chief town. This became the seat of government of Bayezid's youngest son, Mehmed I, and was to remain a residence of princely governors until the 16th century.[8]

In 1395, Bayezid I executed the last Shishmanid Tsar of Bulgaria, and annexed his realm to Rumelia Eyalet. In 1461, Mehmed II expelled the last of the Isfendyarid dynasty from Sinop, awarding him lands thus taxation authority near Bursa in exchange for his hereditary territory. The Isfendyarid principality became a district of Anatolia Eyalet.[8] In 1468, Karaman Eyalet was established, following the annexation of the formerly independent principality of Karaman; Mehmed II appointed his son Mustafa as governor of the new eyalet, with his seat at Konya.[8]

The 16th century saw the greatest increase in the number of eyalets, largely through the conquests of Selim I and Süleyman I, which created the need to incorporate the new territory into the structure of the Empire, and partly through the reorganisation of existing territory.[8] A list dated 1527 shows eight eyalets, with Egypt, Damascus, Diyarbekir and Kurdistan added to the original four. The last eyalet, however, did not survive as an administrative entity. Süleyman's conquests in eastern Turkey, Iraq and Hungary also resulted in the creation of new eyalets.[8]

The former principality of Dulkadir became the Dulkadir Eyalet at some time after its annexation in 1522. After the Iranian campaign of 1533–6, the new eyalets of Erzurum, Van, Sharazor and Baghdad guarded the frontier with Iran.[8] In 1541 came the creation of Budin Eyalet from part of the old Kingdom of Hungary.[8] The Eyalet of the Archipelago was created by Süleyman I especially for Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1533, by detaching districts from the shores and islands of the Aegean which had previously been part of the eyalets of Rumelia and Anatolia, and uniting them as an independent eyalet.[8]

In 1580, Bosnia, previously a district of Rumelia, became an eyalet in its own right, presumably in view of its strategically important position on the border with the Habsburgs. Similar considerations led to the creation of the Kanije Eyalet from the districts adjoining this border fortress, which had fallen to the Ottomans in 1600. In the same period, the annexation of the Rumelian districts on the lower Danube and the Black Sea coast, and their addition to territories between the Danube and the Dniepr along the Black Sea, created the Silistra Eyalet. At the same time, on the south-eastern shore of the Black Sea, Trebizond Eyalet came into being. The purpose of this reorganisation, and especially the creation of the eyalet of Özi was presumably to improve the defences of the Black Sea ports against the Cossacks.[8]

By 1609, according to the list of Ayn Ali, there were 32 eyalets. Some of these, such as Tripoli, Cyprus or Tunis, were the spoils of conquest. Others, however, were the products of administrative division.[8]

Eyalets in 1795

In 1795, the government launched a major reorganization of the provincial administration, with a law decreeing that there would be 28 provinces, each to be governed by a vizer. These were Adana, Aleppo, Anatolia, Baghdad, Basra, Bosnia, Childir, Crete, Constantinople, Damascus, Diyarbekir, Egypt, Erzurum, Habesh, Karaman, Kars, Dulkadir, the Archipelago, Morea, Mosul, Rakka, Rumelia, Sayda, Sharazor, Silistra, Sivas, Trebizond, Tripoli, Van. In practice, however, central control remained weak, and beylerbeyis continued to rule some provinces, instead of vizers.[9]

Government

The beylerbeyliks where the timar system was not applied, such as Abyssinia, Algiers, Egypt, Baghdad, Basra and Lahsa, were more autonomous than the others. Instead of collecting provincial revenues through sipahis, the beylerbey transferred fixed annual sums to Constantinople, known as the salyane.[6]

By 1500, the four central eyalets of the Empire, Rumelia, Anatolia, Rum and Karaman, were under direct rule. Wallachia, Moldavia and the Khanate of the Crimea, territories which Mehmed II had brought under his suzerainty, remained in the control of native dynasties tributary to the Sultan. So, too, did the Kingdom of Hungary after the battle of Mohács in 1526.[8]

Map

List

From the mid-14th century until the late 16th century, only one new beylerbeylik (Karaman) was established.

Disappeared before 1609

The eyalets that existed before 1609 but disappeared include the following:[10]

Province Name Ottoman Turkish Name and Transliteration (Modern Turkish) Existed for
AbkhaziaAbhazya? years (1578–?)also called Sukhum [Sohumkale] or Georgia [Gürcistan] and included Mingrelia and Imeretia as well as modern Abkhazia – nominally annexed but never fully conquered
AkhaltsikheAhıska? years (1603–?)either split from or coextensive with Samtskhe
DagestanDağıstan? years (1578–?)also called Demirkapı – assigned a serdar [chief] rather than a beylerbeyi
DmanisiTumanis? years (1584–?)
GanjaGence16 years (1588–1604)
GoriGori? years (1588–?)probably replaced Tiflis after 1586
GyőrYanık04 years (1594–1598)
IbrimÌbrīm01 year (1584-1585)temporary promotion of the sanjak of Ibrim[11]
KakhetiKaheti? years (1578–?)Kakhetian king was appointed hereditary bey
LazistanLazistān ? years (1574–?)
LorriLori? years (1584–?)
NakhichevanNahçivan01 year (1603 only)possibly never separate from Yerevan[10]
PotiFaş? years (1579–?)may have also been another name for Trabzon
SanaaSan'a02 years (1567–1569)temporary division of Yemen
ShemakhaŞamahı01 year (1583 only)may have also been another name for Shervan
SzigetvárZigetvar04 years (1596–1600)later transferred to Kanizsa
ShervanŞirvan26 years (1578–1604)overseen by a serdar [chief] rather than a beylerbeyi
TabrizTebriz18 years (1585–1603)
TiflisTiflis08 years (1578–1586)probably replaced by Gori after 1586
WallachiaEflak2 months (September–October 1595)the rest of the time Wallachia was a separate autonomous principality
YerevanErivan21 years (1583–1604)sometimes also included Van
ZabidZebit02 years (1567–1569)temporary division of Yemen

Eyalets in 1609

Conquests of Selim I and Suleyman I in the 16th century required an increase in administrative units. By the end of the latter half of the century there were as many as 42 eyalets, as the beylerbeyliks came to be known. The chart below shows the administrative situation as of 1609.

Province Name Ottoman Turkish Name and Transliteration (Modern Turkish) Existed for
HabeshHabeş313 years (1554–1867)Included areas on both sides of the Red Sea. Also called "Mecca and Medina"
Adanaآضنه Ażana (Adana)257 years (1608–1865)
Archipelagoجزایر بحر سفید Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid329 years (1535–1864)Domain of the Kapudan Pasha (Lord Admiral); Also called Denizi or Denizli, later Vilayet of the Archipelago
Aleppoحلب Ḥaleb (Halep)330 years (1534–1864)
Algiersجزایر غرب Cezâyîr-i Ġarb (Cezayir Garp, Cezayir)313 years (1517–1830)
AnatoliaAnadolu448 years (1393–1841)Second Eyalet
Baghdadبغداد Baġdâd (Bağdat)326 years (1535–1861)Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated.
Basraبصره Baṣra (Basra)324 years (1538–1862)
BosniaBosna284 years (1580–1864)
BudinBudin145 years (1541–1686)
Kıbrısقبرص Ḳıbrıṣ (Kıbrıs)092 years (1571-1660; 1745-1748)
Diyarbekirدیار بكر Diyârbekir (Diyarbakır)305 years (1541–1846)
Egerاكر Egir (Eğri)065 years (1596–1661)
Egyptمصر Mıṣır (Mısır)350 years (1517–1867)
ErzurumErzurum334 years (1533–1867)Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated.
Al-HasaLahsa110 years (1560–1670)Seldom directly ruled
Kefe (Theodosia)كفه Kefe206 years (1568–1774)
KanizsaKanije086 years (1600–1686)
KaramanKaraman381 years (1483–1864)
KarsKars295 years (1580–1875)Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated. Bounded to Erzurum Eyalet in 1875.
DulkadirMaraş, Dulkadır342 years (1522–1864)
MosulMusul329 years (1535–1864)Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated.
Ar-RaqqahRakka278 years (1586–1864)
RumeliaRumeli502 years (1365–1867)First Eyalet
ChildirÇıldır267 years (1578–1845)Also called Meskheti, later possibly coextensive with Akhaltsikhe (Ahıska) Province. Most of eyalet passed to Russia in 1829. Remained parts of eyalet bounded to Erzurum in 1845.
ShahrizorŞehrizor132 years (1554–1686)Also Shahrizor, Sheherizul, or Kirkuk. In 1830, this eyalet bounded to Mosul province as Kirkuk sanjak.
SilistriaSilistre271 years (1593–1864)Later sometimes called Ochakiv (Özi); First beylerbeyi was the Crimean khan
SivasSivas466 years (1398–1864)
Syriaشام Şam348 years (1517–1865)
TemeşvarTımışvar (Temeşvar)164 years (1552–1716)
Trebizond, LazistanTrabzon403 years (1461–1864)
Tripoli (Tripoli-in-the-East)طرابلس شام Trablus-ı Şam (Trablusşam)285 years (1579–1864)
Tripolitania (Tripoli-in-the-West)طرابلس غرب Trablus-ı Garb (Trablusgarp)313 years (1551–1864)
TunisTunus340 years (1524–1864)
Vanوان Van316 years (1548–1864)Until the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), Ottoman rule was not consolidated.
Yemenیمن Yemen142 years (1517–1636; 1849–1872)

Sources:

  • Colin Imber. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The structure of Power. (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.)
  • Halil Inalcik. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. Trans. Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973.)
  • Donald Edgar Pitcher. An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1972.)

Established 1609–1683
Province Name Ottoman Turkish Name and Transliteration (Modern Turkish) Existed for
CreteGirid198 years (1669–1867)
MoreaMora181 years (1620–1687) and (1715–1829)originally part of Aegean Archipelago Province
PodoliaPodolya27 years (1672–1699)overseen by several serdars (marshals) rather than by beylerbeyi (governors)
SidonSayda181 years (1660–1841)
UyvarUyvar22 years (1663–1685)
VaradVarad31 years (1661–1692)

Established 1826–1864
Province Name Ottoman Turkish Name and Transliteration (Modern Turkish) Existed for
AdrianopleEdirne38 years (1826–1864)
MonastirManastır38 years (1826–1864)
SalonicaSelanik38 years (1826–1864)
AidinAydın38 years (1826–1864)
AnkaraAnkara37 years (1827–1864)
KastamonuKastamonu37 years (1827–1864)
HerzegovinaHersek18 years (1833–1851)
HüdavendigârHüdavendigâr26 years (1841–1867)
KarasiKaresi02 years (1845–1847)
NišNiş18 years (1846–1864)
Kurdistan Kurdistan 21 years (1846–1867)[12]
VidinVidin18 years (1846–1864)

Maps

Modern usage of the term

Turkish Language Association defines the word eyalet as "an administrative division having some kind of administrative independence" and in modern Turkish, the word eyalet is used widely in the context of federalism, corresponding to the English word state. While the word eyalet is out of use in Turkish public administration, replaced long ago by ils under a unitary structure, top-level administrative subdivisions of numerous federal states are called eyalets in Turkish, such as the states of Australia, Austria, Brazil, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico and the United States, along with the provinces of Argentina, Canada and Pakistan, deferent to the modern definition of the word. Albeit China and Iran are legally unitary states, these countries' provinces are also referred to as eyalets in Turkish.

See also

References
  1. Özbaran, Salih; Lyma, Dom Manuell de (1972). "The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534 - 1581". Journal of Asian History. 6 (1): 52, 55. ISSN 0021-910X. JSTOR 41929749.
  2. A handbook of Asia Minor. Naval Staff. Intelligence Department. 1919. p. 203.
  3. Raymond Detrez; Barbara Segaert (2008-01-01). Europe and the historical legacies in the Balkans. Peter Lang. p. 167. ISBN 978-90-5201-374-9. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
  4. The empires and cities of Asia (1873) by Forbes, A. Gruar. Page 188
  5. Çelebi, Evliya. Trans. by von Hammer, Joseph. Narrative of travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the seventeenth century, Vol. 1, p. 90 ff. Parbury, Allen, & Co. (London), 1834.
  6. Selcuk Aksin Somel (2010-03-23). The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire. Scarecrow Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4617-3176-4. Retrieved 2013-06-03.
  7. D. E. Pitcher (1972). An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire: From Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century. Brill Archive. p. 125. Retrieved 2013-06-02.
  8. Imber, Colin (2002). "The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power" (PDF). pp. 177–200. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-26.
  9. M. Sükrü Hanioglu (2010-03-08). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4008-2968-2. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
  10. D. E. Pitcher (1972). An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire: From Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century. Brill Archive. pp. 128–29. Retrieved 2013-06-02.
  11. V. L. Menage (1988): "The Ottomans and Nubia in the sixteenth century". Annales Islamologiques 24. pp.152-153.
  12. Aydın, Suavi; Verheij, Jelle (2012). Jongerden, Joost; Verheij, Jelle (eds.). Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915. Brill. p. 18. ISBN 9789004225183.

Further reading
  • Imber, Colin (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-3336-1386-3.
  • Halil Inalcik. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600. Trans. Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973.)
  • Paul Robert Magocsi. Historical Atlas of Central Europe. (2nd ed.) Seattle, WA, USA: Univ. of Washington Press, 2002)
  • Nouveau Larousse illustré, undated (early 20th century), passim (in French)
  • Donald Edgar Pitcher. An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire. (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1972., includes 36 color maps)
  • Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German, includes maps)
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