Climate change in Turkey

Climate change in Turkey includes changes in the climate of Turkey, their effects and how the country is adapting to those changes. Turkey's annual and maximum temperatures are rising,[1][2][3] and 2020 was the third hottest year on record.[4] Turkey will be greatly affected by climate change,[5]: 7  and is already experiencing more extreme weather,[6] with droughts,[7][8] floods and heatwaves being the main hazards.[9]

road with large cracks being washed away by a roiling brown river
Flash floods are predicted to become more frequent as here in Sinop.

Current greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey are about 1% of the global total,[10] and energy policy includes heavily subsidizing coal in Turkey.[11] The Environment Ministry co-ordinates adaptation to climate change, which has been planned for water resources by river basin, and for agriculture. Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement in 2021.

Greenhouse gas emissions
This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey.[edit]

Coal, cars and lorries vent more than a third of Turkey's five hundred million tonnes[12] of annual greenhouse gas emissions—mostly carbon dioxide—and are part of the cause of climate change in Turkey. The nation's coal-fired power stations emit the most carbon dioxide, and other significant sources are road vehicles running on petrol or diesel. After coal[13] and oil the third most polluting fuel is fossil gas; which is burnt in Turkey's gas-fired power stations, homes and workplaces. Much methane is belched by livestock; cows alone produce half of the greenhouse gas from agriculture in Turkey.

Turkey re-absorbs about a tenth of its emissions, mostly through its forests. The government supports reforestation, electric vehicle manufacturing and low-carbon electricity generation; and is aiming for net zero carbon emissions by 2053. But it has no plan for coal phase out, and its nationally determined contribution to the Paris Agreement on limiting climate change is an increase rather than a decrease.[13] Unless Turkey's climate and energy policies are changed the 2053 net zero target will be missed[14] and exporters of high carbon products, such as cement and electricity, will have to pay carbon tariffs.[15]

Impacts on the natural environment
not very sharp snow-capped mountain peak in the distance, under a blue sky with a few small clouds
Mount Ararat's glacier is retreating due to climate change, and will be gone before the end of the century.[16][17]

There were two significant periods of climate change in the Bronze Age.[18] According to Prof. Dr. Murat Türkeş, a member of the board of Boğaziçi University's Center for Climate Change and Policy Studies, human-caused climate change in Turkey started in the 1970s.[19] CMIP 6 models it well.[20] One example of climate change's impact will be on the distribution of rainfall: the descending edge of the Hadley cell (an area of circulation near the equator) may move northwards towards Turkey, whose southern border is around 36 degrees north, and this may reduce rainfall in the south of the country.[9]

Temperature and weather changes
Almost one hundred thin vertical stripes mostly bluer to the left and redder to the right
Warming stripes showing variation from the average temperature in Turkey over 120 years

As of 2021 the highest ever recorded temperature was 49.1 C on 20 July 2021 in Cizre.[21] As of 2020, the hottest year on record was 2010, second hottest 2018 and third 2020.[4] In 2021 the Agriculture and Forestry Deputy Minister said that the rise in the average annual temperature would likely be between 1 and 2 degrees between that time and the end of the century.[22] Turkey is forecast to be more severely affected than many other countries,[23][24] but effects vary considerably across the regions of the country,[25] with the largest temperature rises forecast for southern and western regions in the summer.[22] The worst case is a 7 degree rise in temperature by 2100.[26][27]

map of Turkey, roughly a horizontal rectangle, showing a complex pattern of climate types, including a far amount of cold especially in the north and east
Köppen climate classification map for Turkey (1980–2016)
map of Turkey, roughly a horizontal rectangle, showing a complex pattern of climate types, but much less cold than the other map
Predicted Köppen climate classification map for Turkey in the future (2071–2100)

The weather is becoming more extreme,[6] and in 2021 there were extensive wildfires in the south and floods in the north. Wildfires in Turkey have increased[28] due to climate change,[29][30] and wind speed is predicted to increase throughout the Marmara region.[9] During the 21st century temperatures are forecast to rise by 2–3 °C on average and overall precipitation to significantly reduce.[31] However, precipitation may increase in the north,[9] and more floods are predicted, due to rainfall replacing snow.[32] Seasonally, there may be more precipitation in the winter, but 50% less in spring and autumn.[4] Urban heatwaves[33] (especially in the south and east[22]), droughts,[34] storms,[35] and flooding[36] may increase.[37]

a three arch bridge over a river with lots of water and trees along the banks
The Büyük Menderes River, full in November 2007, may halve its average flow by 2100 due to climate change.

Sea level rise

Over 200 thousand people live in areas at risk of 1 meter sea level rise.[38] Tectonic uplift has decreased sea level rise between Samsun and Alanya, whereas several large river deltas have subsided.[39] Istanbul is at risk from sea level rise;[40] for example, Kadıkoy metro station is threatened with flooding.[32]

Water resources

From 1979 to 2019, Turkey's average annual precipitation was slightly over 50 cm, and its average temperature was around 15 °C. Climate change has reduced rainfall and makes it less regular, and hydropower falls in proportion to the rainfall.[41] During this period, annual precipitation fluctuated from over 60 cm to under 45 cm,[41] and average annual temperatures varied by 4 degrees.[41] The highest precipitation is in the eastern Black Sea Region.[41]

Turkey is already a water stressed country, because the amount of water per person is only about 1,500 m³ a year: and due to population increase and climate change it is highly likely the country will suffer water scarcity (less than 1,000 m³) by the 2070s.[9] Little change is forecast for water resources in the northern river basins, but a substantial reduction is forecast for the southern river basins.[9] Konya in central Turkey is also vulnerable.[42]

Producing one gram of beef requires 122 litres of water (compared to 29 litres for the same amount of protein from eggs and 19 litres from plants),[43] but although climate change is causing droughts in Turkey,[44][45] the production of newborn calves is subsidized.[46]

Ecosystems

In coastal areas, highly affected land types are permanent wetlands, croplands and grassland.[41] Climate models predict that extreme weather events will increase in the Mediterranean.[24]: 151  Glaciers in Turkey are retreating:[47] the largest remaining are the glaciers on Mount Ararat and these are forecast to be gone by 2065,[48] as they are melting much faster than mountain glaciers in many other parts of the world.[17] Because the climate in the south is forecast to become hotter and drier it may be very difficult to keep the current southern forests in Turkey.[9] In 2020 there were more forest fires than normal. Soil erosion is forecast to increase.[49] 2020 had a hotter December than before, and trees bloomed in Istanbul, which is not normal.[50] The rise in sea surface temperature is one of the causes of marine mucilage in the Sea of Marmara,[51] and is expected to further change marine life in Turkish waters.[52] The temperature of the Black Sea has increased by 2 degrees,[53] and there are concerns of bears in the region not hibernating.[54]

Impacts on people

Economic impacts

Floods in 2020 caused billions of lira (hundreds of millions of dollars) in damages.[55] Environment Minister Murat Kurum estimated in 2021 that losses due to disasters caused by climate change would amount to billions of lira (hundreds of millions of dollars).[56] Loss in Gross Domestic Product per person by 2100 is forecast in one study to be less than 1% if the concentration of GhG in the atmosphere is kept fairly low (Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 2.6) but almost 8% for severe global warming (RCP 8.5).[57] The World Bank has estimated the cost and benefits of stopping net carbon emissions, but has suggested government do far more detailed planning.[58] For companies which responded to the Carbon Disclosure Project in 2020 the main climate change risk to their businesses is carbon pricing, such as the European Union Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.[59]

Agriculture
large cylindrical bales in a field which has been cut, lit by a low golden sun
Wheat may be severely affected.[60]

Unless global emissions are greatly reduced agriculture in Turkey, such as wheat,[61][62] is expected to be severely affected after the late 2030s especially in areas with rain fed agriculture.[63] Arid and semi-arid areas are at risk of desertification.[64] According to Professor Barış Karapınar, water is lost through evaporation due to "old-fashioned" irrigation techniques used by the Southeastern Anatolia Project, increasing the risk of severe water shortage.[65] Irrigated agriculture will decline as water stress increases and increasing food imports will hit Turkey's trade balance.[63]

Damage to agriculture[66] is predicted to greatly increase,[63] for example due to "false spring" germination or blossoming followed by a cold snap.[4] The increase in early blooming, which is happening due to climate change, can be a problem for crops such as fruit trees.[67] Vineyards in Thrace are being affected.[68] Pine nut production has been severely reduced.[69] A significant decline in agricultural production is transmitted throughout the economy and reduces national welfare.[70]

Hydropower

Reduced precipitation[71] and hydroelectricity in Turkey is forecast,[72] for example in the Tigris and Euphrates river basins, like the 2020 drought.[73] To conserve hydropower, solar power is being added next to the hydropower.[74]

Fisheries and aquaculture
small silver fish in open polystyrene boxes labelled "Karadeniz hamsi kilo 7 lira"
Anchovies may no longer grow properly in Turkish waters.[75]

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, fishing in the Black Sea is sensitive to the impacts of climate change,[76] and according to the Turkish Marine Research Foundation all Turkish seas will be affected.[77][78] The warming of Lake Van is reducing oxygen for pearl mullet.[79]

Tourism

Tourism in Turkey may become too hot in the summer for some people, for example Antalya could become too hot for some visitors during school holidays in summer.[80] Development of ski resorts in the Central Taurus and eastern Black Sea region mountains may not be possible.[81]

Health impacts

1,350 people died because of floods between 1970 and 2014 in Turkey and about 2 million people were affected by those floods.[24] Climate change may impact health in Turkey, for example due to increased heatwaves,[82] especially elderly and chronically ill people and children.[83] Wildfires in Turkey were the worst in the history of the republic in 2021 and killed several people and injured hundreds. Droughts risk mosquito borne diseases.[84]

Impacts on migration

There are over 3 million refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey.[85] But although severe droughts in Syria, such as those in 2007–2008 in the northeast, are made more likely by climate change in the Middle East,[86] according to academics it is very unlikely that this was a cause of the Syrian civil war.[87]

According to the United Nations Development Programme, decreasing rainfall is exacerbating the wide social and regional disparities within Turkey, and the gap between south-eastern provinces and the rest of the country is widening.[88]

Impacts on housing

Environmentalists say that new highways and building concrete are hindering absorption of floodwater by the land.[89] Because of the increase in temperature, existing buildings will need more energy for cooling.[90]

Mitigation
This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey § Mitigation.[edit]
Graph showing carbon dioxide emissions from energy and heat is the biggest sector and has increased a lot since 1990
Carbon dioxide emissions from electricity and heating have risen the most since 1990, followed by transport and industry.
Graph showing greenhouse gas emissions from energy and heat are largest followed by transport
As in many countries electricity, heat and transport are the largest sources of greenhouse gas.

Turkey's GHG emissions are not in line with the Paris agreement objective to limit temperature rise to well below 2 °C. According to Climate Action Tracker, if all government targets were like Turkey's, global warming would exceed 4 °C by the end of the 21st century.[91] Climate Action Tracker predicts that after the country's COVID-19 pandemic emissions will resume their rise, and reach 40% to 70% above the 2020 level by 2030.[92]

The national strategy and action plan only partially covers short-term climate change mitigation.[93]: 101  According to Climate Transparency, to take a fair share of limiting global heating to 1.5 °C, Turkey would need to reduce emissions to 365 Mt CO2e by 2030.[94] But the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) says a faster reduction is needed, and emissions per person per year would need to be cut by more than half to about 2–2.5 t CO2e by 2030.[95]: XXV  As of 2021, discussions continue at the Parliamentary Research Commission on Global Climate Change continues.[96] The government intends to complete its review of long-term (2030 to 2050) policy,[97]: 42 [lower-alpha 1] and publish a new National Climate Change Action Plan with sector specific targets and monitoring mechanisms by 2023.[100] Turkey argues that as a developing country it should be exempt from net emission reduction targets, but other countries do not agree.[100]: 59 

Unless Turkey's energy policy is changed, European Union (EU) emissions per person are forecast to fall below Turkey's during the 2020s.[95]: 22  Since the EU is Turkey's main trading partner, a comparison with targets in the European Green Deal is important to help Turkish businesses avoid future EU carbon tariffs on exports such as steel[101] and cement.[102] Public and private sector working groups are being formed to discuss the EU Green Deal,[103] and the Trade Ministry has published an action plan in response to it and its CBAM.[104] According to one 2020 study, Turkey joining the EU Emission Trading Scheme would be more economically beneficial for the power sector than a national carbon tariff.[105]

Adaptation

Policies and legislation to achieve adaptation

A national strategy and action plan for adaptation to climate change was published in 2012,[106] but Turkey has yet to submit a National Adaptation Plan to the UNFCCC.[107] The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is researching the effects of climate change and developing an adaptation strategy.[108]

The Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning coordinates activities to combat climate change in Turkey.[106] In February 2021 the ministry said that adaptation plans for all seven regions had been completed and that it would present an adaptation report to parliament and set up a climate change research center.[109] At the same time the ministry said that work on sectoral adaptation strategies was continuing for: agriculture, livestock breeding, tourism, renewable energy and industry.[109]

The impacts of climate change on surface water and groundwater for individual water basins have been identified, and adaptation activities have been determined. The implementation area of the project is 25 river basins covering the whole of Turkey, and the projection period covers the years 2015 to 2100. Many other projects like Increasing water storage capacity; Lake-Water Project; Basin Protection Action Plans; Transforming Basin Protection Action Plans to River Basin; Management Plans; Studies on Protecting Drinking Water Basins; Drought Management Studies; Saving Water in Irrigation; Distribution of Water Among Sectors have been built.[24]: 162  New buildings of over 2000 square metres must now include rooftop water collection.[43]

Projects related to climate change and agriculture include: Turkey's Strategy of Fighting Agricultural Drought and Action Plan (2018–2022); Agricultural Monitoring and Information (TARBIL) System; Agriculture and Rural Development Support Institution (TKDK); Agricultural Insurance Law; Developing Agricultural Publication Project (TAR-GEL); Studies of Fighting Erosion; Climate Change National Action Plan-Agriculture Sector.[24]: 167 

According to the Eleventh Development Plan (2019–2023): "It is seen that climate change accelerating due to high greenhouse gas emissions causes natural disasters and poses a serious threat to humanity." and "International climate change negotiations will be conducted within the framework of the Intended National Contribution with the principles of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, and within the scope of national conditions, climate change will be tackled in sectors causing greenhouse gas emissions and the resilience of the economy and society to climate risks will be increased by capacity building for adaptation to climate change."[110] As of 2021 the chief climate change envoy is Mehmet Emin Birpınar, a Deputy Minister of Environment.[111] Environment Minister Murat Kurum launched the Black Sea Climate Change Action Plan in 2019, as part of Turkey's plans to adapt to climate change.[112] Xeriscaping of green spaces in cities has been suggested,[113] and Istanbul has a climate change action plan.[114]

As of August 2021 a climate change law has not been passed, although a draft was published in 2020.[115]

Society and culture

International cooperation
Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan with other country leaders at a meeting of the Mediterranean Climate Change Initiative in 2010.

According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, climate change is one of the world's biggest problems.[116] Turkey was the fifth-largest recipient of multilateral climate funds between 2013 and 2016, receiving $231 million through channels such as the Clean Technology Fund (CTF) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF).[107]

As of October, 2021, Turkey has ratified the Paris Agreement, with all 353 parliamentary members voting unanimously in favor of ratification.[117] Prior to this, it was one of the last few remaining countries, alongside neighboring country Iran, to not have ratified the agreement. It was the last of the G20 countries to ratify. Their reason for delay, according to the current presidency at the G20 summit in 2020, was the countries "negligible historical responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions (less than 1%)". Turkey is not party to the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention).[118] Similarly Turkey has signed but not ratified the Kigali Amendment to reduce production and use of hydrofluorocarbons.[119] It has no carbon tax or emissions trading scheme, therefore carbon capture and storage is not used as it is not economically viable.[120] Armenia says that dam construction in Turkey has combined with climate change to reduce flow in the Araks River basin.[121]

Activism
A 2007 climate change protest in Istanbul.

In 2020 first lady Emine Erdoğan said that “Every wrong step we take can be a disaster for future generations”.[122] In 2021, according to Daily Sabah, she claimed the role of individuals as "more important than switching to renewable energy sources to cut dependency on fossil fuels".[109]

In 2019 some Turkish schoolchildren joined the School Strike for Climate,[123] and Turkey's branch of Extinction Rebellion demonstrated for Turkey to ratify the Paris Agreement.[124]

Muslim environmentalists and academics quote the Quran in support of their environmentalism.[125] In Istanbul in 2015, Islamic leaders urged the world's 1.6 billion Muslims to help defeat climate change.[126][127]

Children's-rights petition and youth lawsuits

Environmental activist Greta Thunberg and 15 other children filed a petition in 2019 protesting lack of action on the climate crisis by Argentina, Brazil, France, Germany, and Turkey[128][129] saying that, amongst other dangers, more deadly heat waves would affect them and other children in future.[130]: 29  The petition challenged the five countries under the Convention on the Rights of the Child:[131] "Comparable emissions to Turkey's rate of emissions would lead to more than 4°C of warming."[130]: 66  If the petition is successful, the countries will be asked to respond; however, any suggestions are not legally binding.[132][133] In 2020, Turkey and 32 other countries were sued at the European Court of Human Rights by a group of Portuguese children.[134]

In 2023 three youth climate activists filed a lawsuit against President Erdoğan and the Ministry of Environment, Urban Planning and Climate Change because Turkey’s Nationally Determined Contribution is not to reduce greenhouse gas emmissons. They allege that there is no effective climate action plan for energy. They allege that these violate their human rights stated in the constitution, such as the environmental clause in the constitution. [135]

Media and arts
Müze Gazhane in Kadıköy is the first climate change museum in Turkey.

In the 1990s independent Açık Radyo (Open Radio) broadcast some of the first media coverage of climate change, and its founder Ömer Madra (in Turkish) emphasises "The three Y's in the fight on climate change: Yerel (local) Yatay (horizontal) and Yavaş (slow, no resort to violence)."[136] İklim Haber (Climate News) also covers climate change issues in Turkish and English.[137] Mainstream Turkish media tends to view new coal-fired power stations as increasing employment rather than causing climate change; nearly all media owners have financial interests in fossil fuels.[138]: 17, 20  The media covers climate change only during extreme weather events, with insufficient expert opinions or civil-society perspectives.[139]: 28  The arts are raising awareness of climate change,[140] and education is supported by the EU.[141][142]

Litigation
This section is an excerpt from Climate change litigation § Turkey.[edit]

In 2020 and 2021 sixteen non government organizations filed lawsuits requesting the president shutdown 37 large coal-fired power stations and over 600 mines.[143][144] In addition to climate change arguments the plaintiffs allege that cancer cases are increased and the COVID-19 pandemic was worsened by their air pollution.[145] They argue that as the constitution says that the country cannot be divided this also means that it is unconstitutional to damage the country, and also that because of their social cost they violate the presidents duty to maintain national security.[143] The constitution also says (article 56) that "Everyone has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment. It is the duty of the State and citizens to improve the natural environment, to protect the environmental health and to prevent environmental pollution." Turkey has ratified the Paris Agreement and says that greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2053, but the government has no plan to phase out coal power.

Government lawyers initially asked for the case to be dismissed by saying that the president does not have the authority to shut down power plants, but the plaintiffs argued that since the constitution had been changed from a parliamentary to a presidential system he does have that authority.[146]

Public perception

Individual action on climate change is not properly understood (in a survey of primary school teachers many erroneously prioritised using less cosmetics) and neither are government choices on climate change mitigation (in the same survey only a minority correctly prioritised curbing fossil fuel use).[147] Future warming of seawater by Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is wrongly thought by some to be relevant to climate change,[25] and few know that geothermal power in Turkey might emit considerable CO2.[148]

İklim Haber (Climate News) and KONDA Research and Consultancy found in 2018 that over three-quarters of public opinion on climate change thinks that extreme weather has increased.[149] According to the latest report written in Turkish and prepared by another collaboration of İklim Haber and Konda Research in 2020, 51.5% of the public opinion believe that the climate crisis is a bigger threat than the coronavirus crisis.[150] Also, 71.4% of the public opinion acknowledge that current climate crisis is a result of human activities.[150] Some construction companies have been accused of greenwashing, advertising their buildings as environmentally friendly without obtaining any green building certificates.[151]

In a 2019 E3G poll of six Belt and Road Initiative countries (including Turkey), solar was the most popular energy source and coal the least popular.[152] Twenty-four Turkish cities committed to the Paris Agreement targets that year,[153] and the United Nations Development Programme partnered with the Turkish Basketball Federation in 2020 to raise public awareness of the fight against climate change.[154] A 2020 study found that the level of public support for a potential carbon tax does not depend on whether the proceeds are used for mitigation and adaptation.[155]

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Climate change in Turkey.

Notes
  1. In 2015, Turkey submitted its emissions target to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), "up to 21 percent reduction in greenhouse gas (GhG) emissions from the Business as Usual level by 2030" and aiming to emit 929 Mt of CO2 (before subtracting CO2 absorbed by forests) in 2030.[98] The country will probably meet this "unambitious" Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) which it submitted to the UNFCCC.[99]

Further reading
  • Turkey, Country Profile (Report). Climate Transparency. 2020.

References
  1. Şen, Prof. Dr. Ömer Lütfi. "Climate Change in Turkey". Mercator-IPC Fellowship Program. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  2. "Monthly and Seasonal Trend Analysis of Maximum Temperatures over Turkey" (PDF). International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing. 7 (11). November 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  3. Aksu, Hakan (2021). "Nonstationary analysis of the extreme temperatures in Turkey". Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans. 95: 101238. doi:10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2021.101238.
  4. "Climate change responsible for spring and winter within weeks". Climate change responsible for spring and winter within weeks. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  5. Turkey's fourth biennial report. Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning (Report). December 2019.
  6. "Extreme weather threatens Turkey amid climate change fears". Daily Sabah. 17 May 2018.
  7. "Turkey drought: Istanbul could run out of water in 45 days". The Guardian. 2021-01-13.
  8. "'Food insecurity Turkey's top climate change risk'". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-05-15.
  9. "Climate". climatechangeinturkey.com. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  10. "Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  11. "Fossil Fuel Support - TUR", OECD, accessed September 2018.
  12. "CO2 Emissions: Turkey - 2021". Climate TRACE. Retrieved 2022-11-12.
  13. "Turkey's Climate Plan Points to 32% Rise in Emissions by 2030". Bloomberg. 15 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-15.
  14. https://www.unpri.org/news-and-press/global-climate-policy-forecast-predicts-well-below-2c-paris-agreement-climate-goals-will-be-met/11790.article
  15. "The Challenge of Decarbonisation and EU-Turkey Trade Relations". German Institute for International and Security Affairs. Retrieved 2022-11-15. The EU's planned carbon border tax …. will affect Turkey's trade relations with the EU if Turkey fails to decarbonise its economy … Turkish cement and electricity sectors are expected to be the worst affect
  16. "Glaciers melting faster in southeast Turkey, sparking concerns". Daily Sabah. 2019-07-30. Retrieved 2021-02-18.
  17. Azzoni, Roberto Sergio; Sarıkaya, Mehmet Akif; Fugazza, Davide (2020-04-01). "Turkish glacier inventory and classification from high-resolution satellite data". Mediterranean Geoscience Reviews. 2 (1): 153–162. doi:10.1007/s42990-020-00029-2. hdl:2434/745029. ISSN 2661-8648. S2CID 216608789.
  18. "Study: Ancient people in Turkey adapted to climate change". Cornell Chronicle. 30 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-11-01.
  19. "Turkey in the midst of climate change, says climate expert". Hürriyet Daily News. 9 October 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
  20. Bağçaci, S. Çağatay; Yucel, Ismail; Duzenli, Eren; Yilmaz, M. Tuğrul (2021-07-01). "Intercomparison of the expected change in the temperature and the precipitation retrieved from CMIP6 and CMIP5 climate projections: A Mediterranean hot spot case, Turkey". Atmospheric Research. 256: 105576. Bibcode:2021AtmRe.25605576B. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105576. ISSN 0169-8095. S2CID 233546613.
  21. "Şırnak'ın Cizre İlçesi'nde Türkiye'nin en sıcak günü yaşandı" [Cizre in Şırnak lives through Turkey's hottest day]. www.gazetevatan.com. 20 July 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-07-20. Retrieved 2021-07-23.
  22. "200-day heat wave: Top Turkish official warns of future danger". Daily Sabah. 2021-04-16. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  23. "Warming a Frozen Policy: Challenges to Turkey's Climate Politics After Paris". Turkish Policy Quarterly.
  24. Seventh National Communication (version 2) of Turkey under the UNFCCC (this is also the third biennial report). Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning (Report). August 2019.
  25. İkli̇m Deği̇şi̇kli̇ği̇ni̇n Yerel Etki̇leri̇ Raporu [Report on local effects of climate change] (PDF) (in Turkish). Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion and WWF-Turkey. March 2015. ISBN 978-975-7169-77-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-28. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
  26. "Climate change triggers extreme weather in Turkey". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  27. "'Global warming may push temperatures in Turkey up by some 6.5 degrees in 80 years' - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 11 August 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-18.
  28. Ward, Lyn (2019-08-27). "Climate change and wildfires - a vicious circle". Fethiye Times. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
  29. "Deforestation prevention key to fight climate change". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  30. "91 of 101 forest fires under control in Turkey: Minister". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-08-01.
  31. Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (2016), p. 22
  32. "Temperature to increase significantly in Turkey in 30 years due to global warming, warns climate expert". Hürriyet Daily News. 19 March 2018.
  33. "Turkey reeling from African heat wave". Daily Sabah. 2 July 2017.
  34. "Gov't forced to take measures amid below average rainfall across Turkey". Hürriyet Daily News. 21 January 2018.
  35. "Lightning electrifies Istanbul, northwestern Turkey skies as thunderstorms take over". Daily Sabah. 24 July 2018.
  36. "Istanbul flood result of Turkey's climate change". Anadolu Agency. 27 July 2017.
  37. Şen, Ömer Lütfi. "Climate Change in Turkey". Mercator-IPC Fellowship Program. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  38. "Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on the Coasts of Turkey" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-05-01.
  39. "Coastal floods in Turkey". Climatechangepost.com. Retrieved 2021-03-24.
  40. "Coastal floods in Turkey". Climatechangepost.com. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  41. Bulut, U; Sakalli, A (2021). "Impacts of climate change and distribution of precipitation on hydroelectric power generation in Turkey". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 1032 (1). Article 012043. Bibcode:2021MS&E.1032a2043B. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1032/1/012043. S2CID 234299802.
  42. Gedik, Furkan (2021). "Meteorological Drought Analysis in Konya Closed Basin". Journal of Geography (42): 295–308. doi:10.26650/JGEOG2021-885519.
  43. Birpınar, Mehmet Emin (2021-04-05). "Drought, drought, drought: What mobilizes awareness? | Opinion". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  44. Dr. Nuran, Talu (2019). "Local Climate Action Planning and Practices in Turkey" (PDF).
  45. Afshar, Mehdi H.; Şorman, Ali Ünal; Tosunoğlu, Fatih; Bulut, Burak; Yilmaz, M. Tugrul; Danandeh Mehr, Ali (2020-08-01). "Climate change impact assessment on mild and extreme drought events using copulas over Ankara, Turkey". Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 141 (3): 1045–1055. Bibcode:2020ThApC.141.1045A. doi:10.1007/s00704-020-03257-6. ISSN 1434-4483.
  46. Turkey Livestock and Products Semiannual. United States Department of Agriculture (Report). 26 March 2021.
  47. Baldasso, V.; Soncini, A.; Azzoni, R.S.; et al. (2018). "Recent evolution of glaciers in Western Asia in response to global warming: the case study of Mount Ararat, Turkey". Theor Appl Climatol. 137 (1–2): 45–59. doi:10.1007/s00704-018-2581-7. S2CID 125700008.
  48. Yalcin, Mustafa (2020). "A GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Model for Determining Glacier Vulnerability". ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information. 9 (3): 180. Bibcode:2020IJGI....9..180Y. doi:10.3390/ijgi9030180.
  49. Berberoglu, Suha; Cilek, Ahmet; Kirkby, Mike; Irvine, Brian; Donmez, Cenk (2020-07-07). "Spatial and temporal evaluation of soil erosion in Turkey under climate change scenarios using the Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA) model". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 192 (8): 491. doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08429-5. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 32638113. S2CID 220375323. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020.
  50. "Experts warn of climate change in Turkey as trees bloom early". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  51. Istanbul, Selin Uğurtaş in (2021-05-25). "Turkey struck by 'sea snot' because of global heating". the Guardian. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
  52. Dabanli, Ismail; Şişman, Eyüp; Güçlü, Yavuz Selim; Birpınar, Mehmet Emin; Şen, Zekai (2021-02-01). "Climate change impacts on sea surface temperature (SST) trend around Turkey seashores". Acta Geophysica. 69 (1): 295–305. Bibcode:2021AcGeo..69..295D. doi:10.1007/s11600-021-00544-2. ISSN 1895-7455. S2CID 231886823.
  53. "Karadeniz'de deniz suyu sıcaklığı 2 derece arttı". www.ntv.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  54. "Bears choosing not to hibernate due to climate change raises concerns in Turkey". Daily Sabah. 2020-12-23. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  55. "Pandemic stresses need for green transformation: Minister". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
  56. "Bakan Kurum: İklim Değişikliğiyle Mücadele Raporu'nu Meclise sunacağız". Archived from the original on 2021-02-17.
  57. Matthew E. Kahn Kamiar Mohaddes Ryan N.C. Ng M. Hashem Pesaran Mehdi Raissi Jui-Chung Yang (August 2019). "Long-term Macroeconomic Effects of Climate Change: a Cross-country Analysis" (PDF). NBER Working Paper Series.
  58. Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report (Report). World Bank. 2022-06-13.
  59. "CDP Turkey Climate Change and Water Report 2020 | CDP Turkey". cdpturkey.sabanciuniv.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  60. Koç, Esra (2020-01-01). "Assessing climate change impacts on wheat production in Turkey and various adaptation strategies". Climate Change and Food Security with Emphasis on Wheat. Science Direct. pp. 43–54. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819527-7.00003-0. ISBN 9780128195277. S2CID 216269049.
  61. "Reducing emissions could mitigate worst effects of climate change, study finds".
  62. Rojas, Maisa; Lambert, Fabrice; Ramirez-Villegas, Julian; Challinor, Andrew J. (2019-04-02). "Emergence of robust precipitation changes across crop production areas in the 21st century". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (14): 6673–6678. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.6673R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1811463116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6452695. PMID 30858318.
  63. Dudu, Hasan; Çakmak, Erol H. (2018). "Climate change and agriculture: an integrated approach to evaluate economy-wide effects for Turkey". Climate and Development. 10 (3): 275–288. doi:10.1080/17565529.2017.1372259.
  64. Desertification and Erosion in Turkey (PDF) (Report).
  65. "Will Turkey's thirst for dam building add an element of combustibility to a regional water crisis?". Equal Times. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  66. Ağaçayak, Tuğba; Keyman, E. Fuat. "Water and Food Security in Turkey in a Changing Climate" (PDF). Istanbul Policy Center, Sabancı University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  67. "Climate change bares its many faces in Turkey". Climate change bares its many faces in Turkey. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
  68. Gurbey, Alev Perihan (July 2020). "Climate Change Problems in Agricultural Landscape Areas: Eastern Thrace Vineyards".
  69. "Climate change hits Turkey's richest highland villages". Daily Sabah. 9 November 2016.
  70. Dudu, Hasan; Çakmak, Erol H. (2018-04-03). "Climate change and agriculture: an integrated approach to evaluate economy-wide effects for Turkey". Climate and Development. 10 (3): 275–288. doi:10.1080/17565529.2017.1372259. ISSN 1756-5529.
  71. Turkes, Murat; Turp, M. Tufan; An, Nazan; Ozturk, Tugba; Kurnaz, M. Levent (2020), Harmancioglu, Nilgun B.; Altinbilek, Dogan (eds.), "Impacts of Climate Change on Precipitation Climatology and Variability in Turkey", Water Resources of Turkey, World Water Resources, Cham: Springer International Publishing, vol. 2, pp. 467–491, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_14, ISBN 978-3-030-11729-0, S2CID 198403431, retrieved 2020-10-24
  72. "Increasing Droughts in Turkey are likely to put Pressure on its Hydropower Sector". Future Directions International. 2019-07-03. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  73. "Drought ramps up power output from gas in Turkey in 2020". Daily Sabah. 2021-02-08. Archived from the original on 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  74. "Turkey expands renewables capacity in gigawatts rather than megawatts". Balkan Green Energy News. 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  75. "Commercial fishing of anchovy banned for 10 days". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2021-04-25.
  76. Barange, Manuel; Bahri, Tarûb; Beveridge, Malcolm C. M.; Cochrane, K. L.; Funge Smith, S. (Simon); Poulain, Florence, eds. (2018). Impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture : synthesis of current knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-130607-9. OCLC 1078885208. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  77. "Climate Change and Turkish Seas | TUDAV". Retrieved 2021-04-25.
  78. "Marine Aquaculture in Turkey: Advancements and Management" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-29.
  79. "Lake Van warms up, threatening ecosystem". Ihlas News Agency. 21 February 2018.
  80. "How hot summers and disease could impact tourism in the Mediterranean | McKinsey & Company". www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  81. Demiroglu, Osman Cenk; Turp, Mustafa Tufan; Kurnaz, Mehmet Levent; Abegg, Bruno (2020-08-26). "The Ski Climate Index (SCI): fuzzification and a regional climate modeling application for Turkey". International Journal of Biometeorology. 65 (5): 763–777. doi:10.1007/s00484-020-01991-0. ISSN 1432-1254. PMC 8116266. PMID 32845376.
  82. Akademisi, Türkiye Bilimler (July 2020). The Report on Climate Change and Public Health in Turkey (Report). Turkish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-605-2249-50-5.
  83. Bayram, Hasan; Öztürk, Ayşe Bilge (2021), Pinkerton, Kent E.; Rom, William N. (eds.), "Global Climate Change, Desertification, and Its Consequences in Turkey and the Middle East", Climate Change and Global Public Health, Respiratory Medicine, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 445–458, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54746-2_21, ISBN 978-3-030-54746-2, retrieved 2021-03-24
  84. "Mosquito takeover in possible drought prompts disease concerns for Turkey". Daily Sabah. 2020-12-28. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  85. "Situation Syria Regional Refugee Response". data2.unhcr.org. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  86. Selby, Jan; Dahi, Omar S.; Fröhlich, Christiane; Hulme, Mike (2017-09-01). "Climate change and the Syrian civil war revisited". Political Geography. 60: 232–244. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.05.007. ISSN 0962-6298.
  87. "On Blaming Climate Change for the Syrian Civil War". MERIP. 2020-09-29. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  88. "Turkey | UNDP Climate Change Adaptation". www.adaptation-undp.org. Retrieved 2021-03-24.
  89. "New homes, highways boost flood risk on Turkey's northern coast". Arab News. 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2021-04-25.
  90. Dino, Ipek Gursel; Akgul, Cagla Meral. "Impact of climate change on the existing residential building stock in Turkey: An analysis on energy use, greenhouse gas emissions and occupant comfort".
  91. Timperley, Jocelyn (3 May 2018). "Carbon Brief Profile: Turkey". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020.
  92. Climate Action Tracker, Turkey. "Turkey". Climate Action Tracker. Climate Action Tracker. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  93. Turkey 2020 Report (see chapters: 15 Energy, 27 Environment and Climate change) (PDF) (Report). European Commission. 2020.
  94. Turkey, Country Profile (Report). Climate Transparency. 2020.
  95. Emissions Gap Report 2020 (Report). UN Environment Programme. 9 December 2020. ISBN 978-92-807-3812-4.
  96. "TBMM Küresel İklim Değişikliği Araştırma Komisyonu toplandı" [The Parliamentary Research Commission on Global Climate Change met]. Milliyet (in Turkish). Retrieved 22 August 2021.
  97. Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. March 2021.
  98. "Republic of Turkey Intended Nationally Determined Contribution" (PDF). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2015.
  99. "Brown to Green: the G20 Transition to a Low-carbon Economy" (PDF). Climate Transparency. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
  100. OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2021 (Report). OECD. 2021. ISSN 1999-0480.
  101. "EU mills push for tariffs on Turkish flats". Argus Media. 9 October 2019. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
  102. "John Kerry warns EU against carbon border tax". Financial Times. 12 March 2021. Archived from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  103. Arseven, E. Benan; Baydar, C. Hazal (17 August 2021). "Turkey Adopts Action Plan to Comply with European Green Deal". Lexology. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  104. "Yeşil Mutabakat Eylem Planı Yayımlandı" [Green Deal Action Plan published]. Ministry of Trade (Turkey) (in Turkish). 16 July 2021.
  105. Mezősi, András; Szabó, László; Pató, Zsuzsanna (18 August 2020). "Extended ETS outperforms carbon border adjustment in the power sector". Euractiv. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
  106. "Turkey — Climate-ADAPT". climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
  107. "The Carbon Brief Profile: Turkey". Carbon Brief. 3 May 2018. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  108. "Protecting Forests in Turkey: Climate Change Adaptation and Biodiversity Protection". www.afd.fr. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
  109. "Turkey sets new goals in fight against climate change". Daily Sabah. 2021-02-17. Archived from the original on 2021-02-17.
  110. Eleventh Development Plan (2019-2023) (PDF) (Report). Presidency of Strategy and Budget. 2020.
  111. Birpınar, Mehmet Emin (2021-01-07). "New trend in transportation: Micromobility". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2021-01-28.
  112. "Pandemic stresses need for green transformation: Minister". Hürriyet Daily News. 17 September 2020. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
  113. Çetin, Nefise; Mansuroğlu, Sibel; Kalaycı Önaç, Ayşe (2018). "Xeriscaping Feasibility as an Urban Adaptation Method for Global Warming: A Case Study from Turkey". Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 27 (3): 1009–1018. doi:10.15244/pjoes/76678.
  114. "İstanbul İklim Değişikliği Eylem Planı" [Istanbul climate change action plan] (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2018-08-30. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
  115. "İkli̇m Deği̇şi̇kli̇ği̇ Kanunu" [Climate Change Law] (PDF). Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-10.
  116. "Climate Change and International Negotiations". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
  117. "Turkey finally ratified the Paris Agreement. Why now?". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  118. "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  119. "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 2020-11-24.
  120. "Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage in the Context of Turkish Energy Market" (PDF). IICEC. June 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-07. Retrieved 2019-01-07.
  121. ""Use every drop of water sparingly" –hydrometeorologist warns as Turkish dams and climate change cut resources". Armenpress. 23 March 2021. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021.
  122. "Turkish first lady urges action against climate change".
  123. "'When adults fail, we need to take action,' says activist". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  124. "Extinction Rebellion calls for people to 'rise up' against Turkish government". Morning Star. 16 April 2019.
  125. Bodetti, Austin (12 September 2019). "Why Turkish academic Ibrahim Ozdemir is pushing for an Islamic approach to environmentalism". alaraby. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  126. "Islamic Declaration on Climate Change" UNFCCC, 18 August 2015
  127. "Islamic Declaration on Global Climate Change" (PDF). The Islamic Foundation For Ecology And Environmental Sciences. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  128. "16 children, including Greta Thunberg, file landmark complaint to the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child". www.unicef.org. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  129. "Countries violate rights over climate change, argue youth activists in landmark UN complaint". UN News. 24 September 2019. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  130. "Communication to the Committee on the Rights of the Child" (PDF). Earthjustice. 23 September 2019.
  131. "Information Pack about the Optional Protocol to the Convention on theRights of the Child on a Communications Procedure (OP3 CRC)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2019.
  132. Kahn, Brian (23 September 2019). "It's Kids vs. the World in a Landmark New Climate Lawsuit". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  133. "Greta Thunberg Leads Young People in Climate Complaint to UN". Bloomberg. 23 September 2019. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  134. "Portuguese children sue 33 countries over climate change at European court". the Guardian. 2020-09-03. Retrieved 2020-09-03.
  135. "Young climate activists file lawsuit against Erdoğan over 'inadequate emission goals'". Bianet. 10 May 2023.
  136. "Local activism at the heart of fight against 'global heating'". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2020-02-10.
  137. "Hakkımızda" [About Us]. İklim Haber (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  138. Cengiz, Pelin; Zırığ, Utku; Şimşek, Soner (January 2019). "Thematic Journalism in Turkey: Environmental-Ecological Reporting" (PDF). saha. Vol. Special Issue 2. pp. 16–23. ISSN 2149-7885.
  139. Şahin, Ümit; Türkkan, Seçil (January 2019). "Turkey's Climate Policies Have Reached a Deadlock: It Takes Courage to Resolve It" (PDF). saha. Vol. Special Issue 2. pp. 24–30. ISSN 2149-7885.
  140. "Turkey's Sertab raises climate change awareness with new song 🇹🇷". Eurovision.tv. 2021-11-12. Retrieved 2021-12-08.
  141. "Turkey's stage-struck grannies act to save the planet". 2019-08-29. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
  142. "Enhancing Required Joint Efforts on Climate Action Project".
  143. "Ekoloji Örgütleri, 37 Termik Santralın Kapatılması İçin Cumhurbaşkanı'na Dava Açtı". K2 Haber (in Turkish). 2022-03-17. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  144. "16 NGOs file a lawsuit, request shutdown of 37 thermal plants". Bianet.
  145. "34 termik santral ve 606 madene karşı açılan dava için Guinness başvurusu". Cumhuriyet (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  146. "37 termik santrali kapatma davası görüldü: Avukatları 'Cumhurbaşkanının yetkisi yok' dedi". Yeşil Gazete (in Turkish). 2022-03-17. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
  147. Yalcin, Fatma Aggul; Yalcin, Mehmet (2017). "Turkish Primary Science Teacher Candidates' Understandings of Global Warming and Ozone Layer Depletion". Journal of Education and Training Studies. 5 (10): 218. doi:10.11114/jets.v5i10.2225.
  148. "Characterizing the declining CO2 emissions from Turkish geothermal power plants" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  149. "Turkey Climate Survey". İklim Haber. 2018.
  150. "Türki̇ye'de İkli̇m Deği̇şi̇kli̇ği̇ Ve Çevre Sorunları Algısı 2020" [2020 opinion about climate change and environmental issues in Turkey] (PDF). İklim Haber (in Turkish). November 2020. pp. 12–18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-26. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  151. Erden, Oğulkan; Erkartal, Pınar ÖKTEM (2019-09-02). "Greenwashing in Turkey: Sustainability as an Advertising Strategy in Architecture". A+Arch Design International Journal of Architecture and Design. 5 (1): 1–13.
  152. "Polling finds citizens in six belt and road countries want clean energy, not coal". E3G. 2019-04-25. Retrieved 2020-09-30.
  153. Schulz, Florence (2019-12-10). "24 Turkish cities oppose Erdogan, support Paris Climate Agreement". www.euractiv.com. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  154. "Bringing sustainable development into play: UNDP teams up with basketball federation to raise awareness". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  155. Uyduranoglu, Ayse; Ozturk, Serda Selin (2020-10-20). "Public support for carbon taxation in Turkey: drivers and barriers". Climate Policy. 20 (9): 1175–1191. Bibcode:2020CliPo..20.1175U. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1816887. ISSN 1469-3062. S2CID 222094247.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.