Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism

Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism (or Proto-Aryan paganism) was the beliefs of the speakers of Proto-Indo-Iranian (the Indo-Iranians) and includes topics such as the mythology, legendry, folk tales, and folk beliefs of early Indo-Iranian culture. By way of the comparative method, Indo-Iranian philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Indo-Iranian folklore and mythology (reconstructions are indicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the early Indo-Iranian period, generally associated with the Sintashta culture (2050–1900 BCE).

Divine beings
See also: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Mitanni Etymology Notes
*Háǰʰiš Ahi Aži – –
*Aryamā́ Skt Aryaman Av. Airiiaman – –
*Bʰagás Skt Bhaga OPers. *Baga[1][lower-alpha 1] – OPers. *Baga is inferred from Bāgayādi, month of the feast *Bagayāda- ('worshiping Baga = Mithra').[1] The etymology indicates a societal deity that distributes wealth and prosperity.[4][5] Slavic bog ('god') and bogátyj ('rich') are generally seen as loanwords from Iranian.[6]
*Ćarwa[7] Skt Śarva[7] YAv. Sauruua[7] – Perhaps related to ToB śer(u)we, ToA śaru 'hunter'.[7] Probably meaning 'hunter' (cf. Khot. hasirä 'quarry, hunted beast', Oss. suryn 'to chase, hunt', syrd 'wild beast'). An epithet of Rudra or Śiva in Sanskrit. Name of one the daēuua (demons) in Young Avestan.[7]
*Dyauš[8] Skt Dyáuṣ[8] OAv. diiaoš[8] – From PIE *dyēus, the daylight-sky god.[8] Meaning 'heaven, daylight sky'. Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European sky-god (cf. Hitt. šīuš, Grk Zeus, Lat. Jove)[8] See Dyēus for further information.
*Hagníš[9] Skt Agni[9] YAv. Dāšt-āɣni[9] From PIE *h₁n̥gʷnis, the fire as an active force.[9] Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European fire-god (cf. Lith. Ugnis, Alb. enjte).[9] See H1n̥gʷnis for further information.
*Hāpam-nápāts[10] Skt Apā́m nápāt[10] YAv. apᶏm napāt[10] – From PIE *h2ep- ('water') and *h2nepot- ('grandson, descendant').[10] Meaning 'Grandsons of the Waters'.[10] See Apam Napat for further information.
*Haramati[11] Skt Arámati[11] Av. Ārmaiti[11] – No known IE cognate.[11] Goddess of obedience and piety. Cf. Skt arámanas ('obedient') and Av. ārmaiti ('piety, devotion').[11]
*HatHarwan[12] Skt Átharvan[12] YAv. Āθrauuan[12] – Perhaps a borrowing from a Central Asian language (cf. ToA atär, ToB etre 'hero').[12] Name of a primordial priest. The Sanskrit cognate is the name of the primordial priest, while the Young Avestan form designates the first social class (i.e. the priests). Scholars have rendered the stem *HatHar- as a 'religious-magical fluid' or 'magical potency'.[12]
*Hwi(H)waswant[13] Skt Vivásvant[13] YAv. Vīuuanhvant[13] – From PIE *h2ues- 'dawn'.[13] Meaning 'morning dawn'. Father of *YamHa (see below). Cf. Skt vaivasvatá and Av. vīuuaŋhuša- ('descending from Vivasvant').[13]
(?) *Wr̥trás[14] Skt Vṛtrá[14] YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna[14] – No known IE cognate.[14] *wr̥trás means 'defence' (the original meaning may have been 'cover'). Skt Vṛtrá is the name of a demon slain by Indra, often depicted as a cobra. YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna, meaning 'breaking of defence, victory', is the name of a god. Cf. also Middle Persian Wahrām ('war god, god of victory'). The Arm. god Vahagn is a loanword from Iranian.[14]
*Hušā́s[15] Skt Uṣás[15] OAv. Ušå[15] – From PIE *h₂éws-ōs, the Dawn-goddess.[15] Name of the dawn-goddess.[15] See H₂éwsōs for further information.
*Índras[16] Skt Índra[16] YAv. Indra[16] Mit. Indara[17] No known IE cognate.[16] –
*Krćānu ~ *Krćāni[18] Skt Kṛśā́nu[18] YAv. Kərəsāni[18] – No known IE cognate.[18] Divine being associated with the Soma. In Sanskrit, the divine archer that guards the celestial Soma; in Young Avestan, name of a hostile king driven away by Haoma.[18]
*Mánuš Skt Manu[19] Av. *Manūš[19] – From PIE *Manu- ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind'; cf. Germ. Mannus).[19] Av. *Manūš.čiθra ('son of Manuš') is inferred from Old Persian Manūščihr, the name of a high priest.[19]
*Mitrás Skt Mitrá Av. Miθra Mit. Mitra[17] See Mitra.
Skt Nā́satyā[20] Av. Nā̊ŋhaiθya[20] Mit. Našattiya[17] Probably from PIE *nes- ('save, heal'; cf. Goth. nasjan).[20] Skt Nā́satyā is another name for the Aśvínā ('horse-possessors'); Nā̊ŋhaiθya is the name of a demon in the Zoroastrian religious system. According to scholar Douglas Frame, "the Iranian singular suggests that in Common Indo-Iranian the twins’ dual name also occurred in the singular to name one twin in opposition to the other".[20] See Divine Twins.
*Pr̥tHwíH[21] Skt Pṛithvī́[21] YAv. ząm pərəθβīm[21] – From PIE *pleth₂wih₁ 'the broad one'.[21] Name of the deified earth. The Sanskrit poetic formula kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth') is identical to YAv. ząm pərəθβīm (id.)[21] See Dʰéǵʰōm for further information.
*PuHšā́[22] Skt Pisán[22] – – From PIE *p(e)h2uson (cf. Grk Πάων < *pausōn).[22] Name of a herding-god, protector of roads, inspector of creatures.[22]
*Sušna[23] Skt Śúsna[23] Sh. sāɣ(d)[23] – From PIE ḱues-.[23] Name of a malevolent being. Proto-Iranian *sušnā- is inferred from Sh. sāɣ̌(d) ('big snake, dragon').[23]
*Tritá[24] Skt Tritá[24] YAv. θrita[24] – From PIE trito 'third'.[24] Mythical hero; one of the first preparers of the Soma.[24]
Skt Váruṇa Av. *Vouruna(?)[25] Mit. Aruna[17] The Indo-Iranian ancestry is supported by Mitanni Aruna.[17] The Avestan *Vouruna is postulated as the form the god would have taken in Iran, perhaps later replaced by Ahura Mazdā or Apam Napat.[25]
*Ućan[26] Skt Uśánā[26] YAv. Usan[26] – Probably a non-IE name based on the same root as *ućig- ('sacrificer').[26] Name of a sage.[26]
*HwaHyúš and *HwáHatas[27] Skt Vāyú and Vā́ta[27] OAv. Vaiiu and Vāta[27] – From PIE *h2ueh1iu and *h2ueh1nto.[27] Gods of winds.[27]
*YámHas[28] Skt Yamá[28] Av. Yima[28] – From PIE *imH-o 'twin'.[28] Meaning 'twin'; inherited from Proto-Indo-European (cf. Old Norse Ymir, the primeval giant). In Indo-Iranian, name of the mythical primeval man, first presser of the Soma, and son of the god *Hui(H)uasuant .[28] Cognate to the Indic goddess Yamuna, a deified river. See Indo-European cosmogony for further information.

Location
Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*Háćmā[29] Skt áśman[29] YAv. asman[29] From PIE *h₂éḱmōn, 'stone, stone-made weapon; heavenly vault of stone'.[30][31] Skt áśman means 'stone, rock, sling-stone, thunderbolt', YAv. asman 'stone, sling-stone, heaven'.[29] The original PIE meaning appears to have been 'stone(-made weapon)' > 'heavenly vault of stone' (cf. Grk ákmōn 'anvil, meteoric stone, thunderbolt, heaven', Goth. himins 'heaven', Lith. akmuõ 'stone').[30][31] See Perkwunos (Heavenly vault of stone) for further information.

Entities
Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*daivá[32] god, deity Skt devá[32] OAv. daēuua[32] From PIE *deywós 'celestial > god'.[32] The Iranian word is at the origin of the div, a creature of Persian mythology, later spread to Turkic and Islamic mythologies.[33]
*daiwiH[34] goddess Skt devī́[34] YAv. daēuuī[34] From PIE *deywih2 'goddess'.[34]
*g(h)andh(a)rua- ~ g(h)andh(a)rbha-[35] Skt gandharvá[35] YAv. gandərəba[35] No known IE cognate.[35] Group of mythical beings.
*Hasura[36] god, lord Skt ásura[36] Av. ahura[36] From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth').[36]

Other
Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*bhišáj[37] 'healer' Skt bhišáj-[37] OAv. biš-[37] No known IE cognate.[37]
*dać-[38] 'to offer, worship' Skt dáś-[38] OAv. dasəma[38] From PIE *deḱ-.[38]
*diuiHa[39] 'heavenly, divine' Skt divyá[39] – From PIE *diwyós 'heavenly, divine'.[39]
*gau(H)-[40] 'call, invoke' Skt gav(i)[40] – From PIE gewh2-.[40] cf. also Osset. argawyn < *agraw- ('to perform a church service').[40]
*grH-[41] 'song of praise, invocation' Skt gír[41] OAv. gar-[41] From PIE gwerH-.[41]
*(H)anću[42] 'Soma plant' Skt amśú-[42] YAv. ᶏsu-[42] Presumably a loanword.[42]
*HaHpriH[43] 'wishing, blessing, invocation' Skt āprī́[43] YAv. āfrī[43] No known IE cognate.[43]
*Hiáj[1] 'to worship, sacrifice' Skt yaj[1] Av. yaz-[1] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[1]
*Hiájata[44] 'worthy of worship, sacrifice' Skt yajatá[44] Av. yazata-[44] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[44]
*Hiájna[45] 'worship, sacrifice' Skt yajna[45] Av. yasna-[45] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[45]
*Hiša[46] 'refreshing libation' Skt ídā[46] OAv. īžā[46] No known IE cognate.[46]
*Hižd-[47] 'to invoke, worship'[47] Skt īd-[47] OAv. īšas-[47] From PIE *h2eisd-.[47]
*(H)rši[48] 'seer'[48] Skt ṛ́si[48] OAv. ərəšiš[48] No known IE cognate.[48]
*Hrta[49] 'truth, (world-)order' Skt ṛtá[49] OAv. aša, arəta[49] From PIE *h2rtó.[49]
*HrtaHuan[50] 'belonging to Truth' Skt ṛtā́van[50] OAv. ašauuan[50] From PIE *h2rtó.[50]
*j́hau-[51] 'pour, sacrifice, offer'[51] Skt hav[51] Av. ā-zuiti[51] From PIE *ǵheu-.[51]
*j́hau-tar[52] 'priest' Skt hótar[52] Av. zaotar[52] From PIE *ǵheu-.[52]
*j́hau-traH[53] 'sacrificial pouring' Skt hótrā[53] YAv. zaoθrā[53] From PIE *ǵheu-.[53]
*namas[54] 'to worship, honour' Skt námas[54] Av. nəmah[54] From PIE *némos.[54]
*sauma[55] 'Soma-plant', a deified drink Skt sóma[55] YAv. haoma[55] No known IE cognate.[55] Probably referring to ephedra.[55]
*uájra[56] Mythical weapon Skt vájra[56] YAv. vazra[56] From PIE *ueh2ǵ-.[56] Mythical weapon associated with Indra in India and with Mithra in Iran. Cf. Arm. varz ('stick'), a loanword from Iranian.[56]
*uand(H)[57] 'to praise, honour' Skt vandi[57] YAv. vandaēta[57] No known IE cognate.[57]
*ućig[58] 'sacrificer' Skt uśíj[58] OAv. usij[58] Likely a borrowing from a Central Asian language.[58] Skt uśíj is an epithet of sacrificers and of Agni. OAv. usij designates a 'sacrificer which is hostile towards the Zoroastrian religion'.[58]
*uipra[59] 'exctasic, inspired' Skt vípra[59] YAv. vifra[59] No known IE cognate.[59] See Viprata for further information.
*urata[60] 'rule, order, religious commandment, observance' Skt vratá[60] OAv. uruuata[60] No known IE cognate.[60]

See also

Footnotes
  1. The word baga is attested once in Old Avestan (possibly, but its interpretation remains unclear), and about ten times in the Young Avesta: baɣa- appears as an epithet for Ahura Mazda, the Moon and Miθra, while a compound hu-baɣa- refers to female deities.[2][3]

References
  1. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yaj-.
  2. Zimmer, Stefan (2010). "On Comparing Slavic and Celtic Theonyms, with Regard to Their Indo-European Background". Studia Celto-Slavica. 3: 8–9. doi:10.54586/OMVE4451. S2CID 244036366.
  3. König, Götz (2016). "The Niyāyišn and the bagas (Brief comments on the so-called Xorde Avesta, 2)" (PDF). DABIR. 2 (1): 18–22. doi:10.1163/29497833-00201005.
  4. Thieme, Paul. "Classical Literature". In: India, Pakistan, Ceylon. Edited by W. Norman Brown, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960, p. 75. https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512814866-014
  5. Boyce, Mary (1996). "THE GODS OF PAGAN IRAN". In: A History of Zoroastrianism, The Early Period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 57-58. doi: https://doi-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1163/9789004294004_003
  6. Derksen, Rick (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon. Brill. p. 50. ISBN 978-90-04-15504-6.
  7. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. śarva-.
  8. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. dyáv-.
  9. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. agni-.
  10. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. nápāt-.
  11. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. arámati-.
  12. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ártharvan-.
  13. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vivásvant-.
  14. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vṛtrá-.
  15. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. usás-.
  16. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. índra-.
  17. Fournet 2010.
  18. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. kṛśā́nu-.
  19. Lincoln 1975, pp. 134–136.
  20. Frame, Douglas (2009). "Hippota Nestor - 3. Vedic". Center for Hellenic Studies. Archived from the original on 20 September 2019.
  21. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. pṛithvī́-.
  22. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. pisán-.
  23. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. śúsna-.
  24. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. tritá-.
  25. Benveniste, Émile (1975). Mélanges linguistiques offerts à Émile Benveniste. Peeters Publishers. p. 61. ISBN 978-2-8017-0012-9.
  26. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. uśánā-.
  27. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vā́ta- and vāyú-.
  28. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yamá
  29. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. áśman-.
  30. Orel 2003, p. 169.
  31. Kroonen 2013, p. 220.
  32. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. devá-.
  33. Čačava, Msia. "Dev" [Div]. In: Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online, edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016 [1981]. p. 569. https://www-degruyter-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/database/EMO/entry/emo.3.099/html. Accessed 2023-01-16.
  34. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. devī́-.
  35. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. gandharvá-.
  36. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ásura-.
  37. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. bhišáj-.
  38. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. dáś-.
  39. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. divyá-.
  40. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. gav(i).
  41. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. gír-.
  42. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. amśú-.
  43. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. āprī́-.
  44. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yajatá-.
  45. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yajñá-.
  46. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. íd-.
  47. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. īd-.
  48. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛ́si-.
  49. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛtá-.
  50. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛtā́van-.
  51. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hav-.
  52. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hótar-.
  53. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hótrā-.
  54. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. námas-.
  55. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. sóma-.
  56. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vájra-.
  57. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vandi-.
  58. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. uśíj-.
  59. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vípra-.
  60. Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vratá-.

Bibliography
  • Fournet, Arnaud (2010). "About the Mitanni Aryan gods". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 38 (1–2): 26–40.
  • Lubotsky, Alexander (2011), "Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon", Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project, Brill.
  • Mayrhofer, Manfred (1992). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen. Carl Winter. ISBN 3-533-03826-2.
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