Rajadhiraja I

Map of the Chola Empire under Rajadhiraja I (c. 1045 C.E.)

The Buddhist text Mahavamsa shows that the years following the defeat and deportation of the Sinhalese king Mahinda V by Rajendra in 1017 CE were filled with revolt and anarchy due uprisings by the Sinhalese subjects against the reign of the Chola invaders. Mahinda was captured and transported to the Chola country as prisoner where he died 12 years later. Mahinda's son Kassapa had formed the resistance against the Chola occupiers and the revolts were centered on Kassapa.[3]

Kassapa managed to face off the almost 95,000 strong Chola army for over six months and push them northwards from the Rohana area in southern Sri Lanka he then crowned himself Vikramabahu in 1029 C.E.[3] Cholas never intended to subjugate the entire island of Sri Lanka and only occupied the whole island for a period of about 10 years. Sinhalese resistance was assisted by various Pandyan princes against their common enemy. Pandyas had a very close political as well as marital relationship with the Sinhalese.

During Rajadhiraja's reign this became very acute as Vikramabahu launched an all out attack on the Tamil armies to expel them from the island. He was assisted by a Pandya prince Vikarama Pandya and Jagatpala, a prince from the distant Kanauj in North India. Rajadhiraja's forces battled and killed these princes.[4]

The version of the Mahavamsa has to be taken in the right perspective in that it states itself to be a Buddhist chronicle and its point of view is only supposed to favour Buddhist subjects. We cannot expect it to speak in very complimentary terms about non-Buddhist kings. In any case, at least in war, the Cholas were known to be very uncompromising with their enemies and believed in eliminating them rather than setting them free. whether it was the "Chalukyas", "Pandyas" or the "Sinhalese kings"... their treatment was the same, which the Mahavamsa chroniclers found inhuman.

The Chola provinces in Lanka were a separate administrative division of the empire. The deep southern half was however a Sinhalese stronghold in perpetual conflict with the Cholas. Prince Kitti, son of Vikramabahu became Vijayabahu in 1058 CE and took over the leadership of the resistance. The generals of Cholas executed the captured Lankan generals along with their family members.[5]

Rajadhiraja, eager to subdue the rising power of the Western Chalukyas and to restore Chola influence with the Eastern Chalukyas in Vengi, personally led an expedition into the Telugu country in 1046 CE.[6] He defeated the Western Chalukya forces in a battle at Dannada on the river Krishna and set fire to their fort.[7] This expedition was followed by number of raids into the Chalukya country by the Chola army in which they captured several generals and feudatories of Chalukya, demolished the Chalukya palace at Kampali. The victorious Chola forces crossed the Krishna river and erected a victory pillar at a place called Yetagiri.[6][7] After more fighting, Kalyani, the capital of Chalukya, which is identified as Kalyan or Basavakalyan in Bidar was sacked.[6] Cholas also placed a victory pillar in Kolhapur or Kollapuram in Maharashtra.The victorious Rajadhiraja entered the capital of the vanquished Chalukyas and his coronation was performed at 'Kalyanapura', subsequent to which he assumed the title Vijayarajendra.[7][8][9] Someshvara I was banished to places like Rodda, Kadambalige and Kogali 1000 territories in the Nolambavadi areas[**].

In 1050 CE Chalukya king Someshvara reneged on his payment of tribute to his Chola overlords and usurped the Chalukya throne from the Chola viceroy in Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan).[7] He also sent an expedition to Vengi in order to re-inforce Western Chalukyan hegemony over the Eastern Chalukyas, whom they always regarded as their dominions. It is also speculated that Someshvara I 'may' have captured Kanchi and Kalinga. However, according to Nilakanta Sastri and Majumdar, these are baseless claims because Someshvara I had as his feudatories the Uchangi Pandyas and the Nolamba Pallavas who had provided shelter to his predecessors Jayasimha-II and Satyashraya. The Nolamba Pallavas pompously held the birudas 'Lord of Kanchi', which may lead one to believe that the feudatories of the Chalukyas were ruling from Kanchi or occupying Kanchipuram, both of which presumptions are false. Also, the Cholas were controlling Kalinga through the Vengi Kings like Vimaladitya and Raja Raja Narendra who were related to the Chola Kings. While Someshvara-I did destabilise Vengi by temporarily displacing Rajaraja Narendra, this act also initially disturbed Chola connections with Kalinga. This however, was short-lived for immediately Rajadhiraja-I set off for war against Someshvara-I and that too not at Vengi or Kalinga but by the Chalukya capital itself. But that was after thoroughly preparing himself for war before which he undertook in 1052, the task of anointing his younger brother Rajendra Chola II as co-regent in preference to his own sons. The latter seems to have ascended the throne in 12th for he has the title Rajakesari from then on. When these tasks were completed, in 1054 Rajadhiraja invaded the Chalukyan territory[**].

Rajadhiraja invaded Rattamandalam (southern Karnataka) and immediately seized many of the southern parts of Chalukyan territory like Uchangi, Nulambavadi, Kadambalige, Kogali etc. These developments shook Someshvara-I, who had given himself the title of Trailokyamalla after installing his puppet in Vengi and he had to rush back to save his own kingdom and he had no option but to march against the marauding Chola armies. The two armies met at a place called Koppam on the banks of the Krishna River[**].

Vedagiriswarar Temple in Chengalpattu

Bhoganandishwara Temple in Chikballapur

Rajadhiraja's inscriptions begin with the introduction tingaler-taru.[10] The following is an inscription from the Svetaranyesvara temple in Tiruvenkadu, a few miles from Vaitheeswaran temple. It mentions the king's father, i.e., emperor Rajendra I

A record in the 30th year of the reign of Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I) Records that one Ambalan Seyyavayar set up the image of Picchadevar (Bhikshatana), gave lands for its requirements, presented gold and silver ornaments, opened a charity house and provided for its maintenance. The same person is said to have obtained lands for the temple from the king's father (Rajendra I), who was pleased to take Purvadesam, Ganga and Kadaram.[11][12]

There is another inscription of the king his 29th regnal year from the Manimangalam village about donation of land which speaks on a detailed way his military achievements. Inscription goes on to describe the following:

a. Appointment of his 7 relatives as governors to Chera, Chalukya, Pandya, Ganga, Ceylon, Pallava and Kanyakubja (Kannauj – UP).

b. Victorious war against ahavamalla, vikki, vijayaditya who are Someswarar I, Vikramaditya VI and Vijayaditya respectively of Western Chalukya and the burning of Kollipakai.

c. His exploits at Ceylon where he attacked its four kings (Vikramabahu, Veera Salamegan, Vikrama Pandya and Srivallabha madanaraja) . Out of four, vira salamegan had initially ruled over Kannauj. Rajadhiraja while sacking Ceylon had seized his elder sister and his wife and also went on to cut the nose of his mother.

d. On his second raid to chalukyan kingdom, he went on to burn Kampili and he died on the battle field at Kopam. There is one inscription by Western Chalukya which was inscribed in Annigere which talks of a wicked chozha who had abandoned his religious practices and burned Jaina temples and ultimately yielded his head to someswara.[13]

Another inscription of the king from a temple in Chengalpattu district is as follows,

On the west and south bases shrine in Adhipursivara temple. A record of the Chola king Rajakesari Varma alias Udaiyar Rajadhiraja Deva (I). Records in his thirty first year, a sale of land by the assembly of the brahmadeya villages of Sundarasola-chatuvedimangalam and Vanavanmahadevi-chaturvedimangalm. It was purchased by Nagalavvaichchani alias Ariyammai, wife of Prabhakara Bhatta, a resident of Megalapuram in the Arya-desa and a devotee of the temple of Tiruvorriyurudaiaya Mahadeva. The purchased land was given to the matha called Rajendrasolan which was built by that lady. Records also other sales of land to the same lady and for the same purpose, by residents of Ennoor in Navalur-nadu, which was a sub-division of Pularkottam and by the merchants (nagarattaar) of Tiruvorriyur in the years thirty-one and twenty-seven of the same reign.[14]

From an inscription from the 29th year of his reign from the Rajagopala Perumal temple we understand that he defeated several warriors of the Chalukyan army, the most notable being Vikki (Vikramaditya), Vijayadityan and Sangamayan. In addition, it also shows the various kingdoms that acknowledged his supremacy. Here is an excerpt:

...he cut-off on the battle-field the head of Manabharanan,...seized in battle (the Kongu Chera) Vira Kerala whose ankle rings were wide and was pleased to get him trampled down by his furious elephant,...he sent the undaunted king of Venad [back] to the country of Cheras...he captured the salai at Kandalur,...when Ahavamallan became afraid;...when two warriors of great courage Vikki and Vijayadityan...retreated...
the tribute paid without remissions by the Villavar (Chera), Minavar (Pandya), the Chalukkyas, Kausalar, Vanganar, Konganar, Sindurar, Pangalar and Andhirar and other kings and the riches collected...were gladly given away to those versed in the four Vedas (i.e to the Brahmins). In order to be famed in the whole world, he followed the path of Manu and performed the Horse-Sacrifice...In the 29th year (of the reign) of this king Rajakesari Varma, alias the lord Sri Rajadhiraja Deva, who was seated on the royal (throne and who had obtained) very great fame (under the name) Jayangonda Cholan, we, the great assembly of Manimangalam, alias Rajachulamani Chaturvedi-mangalam, in Maganur-nadu, (a subdivision) of Chengattu-kottam, (a district) of Jayangonda Chola Mandalam[15]

Here is an excerpt of an inscription from the Chikballapur district of Karnataka. It gives a brief overview of some of the king's exploits while he was still a co-regent of his predecessor (original in Tamil and Grantha alphabet):

In the 32nd year of the reign of Ko Rajakesari Varma alias Sri Rajadhiraja Deva of bright intellect, who...was born to render conspicuous the ancient race of the hot-rayed god (i.e., the Solar Race); who caused his umbrella, planted under the shadow of his father's white umbrella, to cast its shade over the entire kingdom of his father, who conquered with his army Ganga of the prosperous north, Lanka of the south, Makotai of the west and Kadaram of the east; who swayed his scepter over every region; who cut-off on the battle-field the beautiful head which was adorned with large jewels and was never without the golden crown, of Manabharanan, the renowned king of the south (Pandya); who sent the king of Venad to heaven [or back to the Chera country]; who killed the king of Kalingam on the battle-field; who caused to be destroyed the Kandalur Salai on the sea coast; and who acquired great fame under the praiseworthy name of 'Jayangonda Cholan' The officer Vira Vichchadira (Vidyadhara) Muvendavelar...gave for the god Maha Nandiswara Udaya Mahadeva, on the Nandi hill in Kalavara Ndu, a plate of gold weighing by the standard of the city, 2.5 kalanju and 1 manjadi, as an ornament to be worn by the god for as long as the sun and the moon exist.[16]

Here is the inscription from Kolar in Karnataka:

In the 35th year...Ko Parakesari Varma alias Vijaya Rajendra Deva, who having taken the head of Vira Pandya, the [Kandalur] Salai of the Chera, Lanka and Rattapadi [the Chalukya] Seven and Half Lakh (country), and set up a pillar of victory at Kalliyanapuram, took his seat on the throne of heroes and got himself anointed as 'Vijaya Rajendra'...in the Kuvalala Nadu of Vijaya Rajendra Mandalam.[17]

Sometime after he ascended the throne, he placed Rajendra Chola II as a co-regent. Rajendra Chola II would reign alongside Rajadhiraja until the latter's death after which he ascended the throne.