History of the Royal Canadian Air Force

Canada's first powered, heavier-than-air aircraft, the AEA Silver Dart took flight in 1909. The aircraft's military potential piqued the interests of some officers in the Department of Militia and Defence.

The first heavier-than-air, powered aircraft flight in Canada and the British Empire occurred on 23 February 1909 when Alexander Graham Bell's Silver Dart took off from the ice of Bras d'Or Lake at Baddeck, Nova Scotia with J.A.D. McCurdy at the controls.[3] The 1/2-mile flight was followed by a longer flight of 20 miles on 10 March 1909.

McCurdy and his partner F. W. "Casey" Baldwin had formed the Canadian Aerodrome Company, and they hoped that the Department of Militia and Defence would be interested in buying the company's aircraft. Two staff officers at Militia Headquarters were interested in using aircraft for military use, and so the aviators were invited to Camp Petawawa to demonstrate their aircraft.[4] On 2 August 1909, the Silver Dart made four successful flights; however, on the fourth flight McCurdy wrecked the craft on landing when one wheel struck a rise in the ground. The Silver Dart never flew again.[5] A second aircraft, the Baddeck No.1, was flown a few days later, but was severely damaged on its second landing.[5] Before the accidents, however, the Silver Dart made the first passenger flight aboard a heavier-than-air aircraft in Canada when McCurdy flew with Baldwin.[6] After the crashes, the militia department showed no interest in aircraft. It was not until the First World War that the Canadian government became interested in military aviation.[7]

At the beginning of the First World War on 4 August 1914, Canada became involved in the conflict by virtue of Britain's declaration. Some European nations were using aircraft for military purposes and Canada's Minister of Militia and Defence, Sam Hughes, who was organizing the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), inquired how Canada could assist military aviation.[7] London answered with a request for six experienced pilots immediately, but Hughes was unable to fill the requirement.

The Burgess-Dunne was Canada's first military aircraft, although it never saw military service.

Hughes did authorize the creation of a small aviation unit to accompany the CEF to Britain and on 16 September 1914, the Canadian Aviation Corps (CAC), which was formed with two officers, one mechanic, and $5000 to purchase an aircraft from the Burgess Company in Massachusetts, for delivery to Valcartier, near Quebec City. The Burgess-Dunne biplane was delivered on 1 October 1914, and was shipped immediately to England. On arrival, the biplane was transported to Salisbury Plain where the CEF was marshalled for training. The craft never flew. It quickly deteriorated in the damp winter climate.[7] By May 1915, the CAC no longer existed.[8]

During the First World War over 20,000 Canadians volunteered to serve with the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and the Royal Naval Air Service, producing such aces as William Barker, W.A. "Billy" Bishop, Naval Pilot Raymond Collishaw, Roy Brown, Donald MacLaren, Frederick McCall, and Wilfrid "Wop" May.[9] In 1917 the RFC opened training airfields in Canada to recruit and train Canadian airmen. The Canadian government advanced the RFC money to open an aircraft factory in Toronto, Canadian Aeroplanes, but did not otherwise take part.[10]

Sopwith Dolphins of No.1 (Fighter) Squadron, Canadian Air Force.

In 1915, Britain suggested that Canada should consider raising its own air units. However, it was not until spring 1918 that the Canadian government proposed forming a wing of eight squadrons for service with the Canadian Corps in France. Rather than the proposed eight squadrons, the British Air Ministry formed two Canadian squadrons (one bomber, one fighter). On 19 September 1918, the Canadian government authorized the creation of the Canadian Air Force (CAF) to take control of these two squadrons (eventually to become No 1 Wing, CAF) under the command of Canada's Lieutenant-Colonel Billy Bishop, the leading ace of the British Empire and the first Canadian aviator awarded the Victoria Cross.[9] In June 1919 the British government cut funding to the squadrons, and in February 1920, the CAF in Europe was disbanded, never having flown any operations.[11]

There had been some thought that these two European squadrons would be the nucleus of a new Canadian air force.[12] Indeed, some members of the CAF believed they were to become members of a new permanent air force.[13] However, on 30 May 1919 the Canadian government decided against a new military air force because it was felt none was needed.[14]

After the war, Britain committed Canada to the International Convention for Air Navigation, part of the Peace Convention signed by Britain in Paris in 1919. Canada was required to control air navigation and traffic within its borders. To accomplish this, Canada instituted the Air Board, whose task was mainly regulatory but it was also responsible for controlling civil aviation and handling air defence.[15]

DH4 aircraft at the Air Board air station at High River, Alberta, 1922. The aircraft were used for forestry patrols and photography.

One of the Air Board's first responsibilities was managing the operation of over 100 surplus aircraft that been gifted to Canada by the British Government to help Canada with air defence. Several flying boat aircraft and other equipment had also been donated to Canada by the Americans who had temporarily established naval air stations on the east coast pending formation of the Royal Canadian Naval Air Service.[16] The Air Board decided to operate these aircraft in support of civil operations such as forestry, photographic surveying, and anti-smuggling patrols. Six air stations were taken over or established by the Air Board in 1920–21 for civil flying operations.

The Air Board's venture into air defence consisted of providing refresher training to former wartime pilots via a small part-time air militia known as the Canadian Air Force (CAF) at the old Royal Flying Corps air station, Camp Borden.[17] Political thinking at the time was that to propose a permanent military air service would not be popular with the public, especially during peacetime.[18] This training scheme began in July 1920 and ended in March 1922. The air militia was dissolved.

The Department of National Defence was formed in 1922 with the amalgamation of the Department of Militia and Defence, the Department of Naval Services and the Air Board with its CAF branch. The CAF became a new organization, and by 1923 when the reorganization was finalized, became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. Civil flying operations originally established by the Air Board continued under the CAF.[19]

The thought that the Canadian Air Force should become "Royal" was first generated when the Australian Air Force became "Royal" in August 1921. Formal application to change the title was made on 5 January 1923, and on 15 February 1923, Canada was notified that King George V had granted the title.[20] The Canadian Government, however, did not officially recognize the granting of the new title, Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), until 1 April 1924.[21]

The RCAF continued civil tasks such as anti-smuggling patrols, forest fire watches, aerial forest spraying, mail delivery, mercy flights, law enforcement, and surveying/aerial photography, and there was some training. A major undertaking by the RCAF during 1927–28 was the Hudson Strait Expedition whose purpose was to investigate ice movements and navigation conditions in the Hudson Strait in preparation for the possible creation of a major shipping port on Hudson Bay at Churchill, Manitoba.[22]

The Siskin was a fighter used by the RCAF from 1926 to 1939. It was used until the Hawker Hurricane came into service.

The new air force was to be organized into a Permanent Force and an auxiliary or Non-permanent Force (Non-Permanent Active Air Force, or NPAAF), but the NPAAF did not become active for another eight years.[23] The RCAF replaced the Air Board and the CAF as the regulator of Canadian civil aviation. In 1927 the management of aviation in Canada was reorganized so that the RCAF, now considered to be a military body, did not control civil flying. A new government branch, the Civil Government Air Operations (CGAO) Branch, was formed to manage air operations that supported civil departments. However, the RCAF administered the branch, and supplied almost all the aircraft and personnel. The RCAF continued to support the CGAO until the Department of Transport assumed responsibility for supporting civil departments or until these departments instituted their own flying services.[24]

Budget cuts in the early 1930s affected personnel strength, airfield construction, pilot training, aircraft purchases and operational flying. The "Big Cut" of 1932 was especially devastating to the RCAF. The NPAAF was finally formed in 1932 in response to the budget cuts.[25] Ten auxiliary squadrons were formed between 1932 and 1938. The air force began to rebuild throughout the 1930s, however, and priorities were aimed at increasing the strength of the RCAF as a military organization rather than improving it to better support civil air operations. New aircraft were ordered and new air stations were built. The RCAF expanded or combined its units, and regional commands were implemented.

By the end of the 1930s the RCAF was not a major military force.[26] Aircraft were obsolete, and the RCAF had no experience in military operations. Although new pilots and other personnel had been trained, manpower was still lacking. Many of these problems would be surmounted with the implementation of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) during the Second World War.

In 1939, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand agreed to train aircrew for wartime service. The training plan, known as the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), was administered by the Canadian government and commanded by the RCAF; however, a supervisory board with representatives of each of the four involved countries protected the interests of the other three countries.[31] Training airfields and other facilities were located throughout Canada. Although some aircrew training took place in other Commonwealth countries, Canada's training facilities supplied the majority of aircrew for overseas operational service.[32] Schools included initial training schools, elementary flying training schools, service flying training schools, flying instructor's schools, general reconnaissance schools, operational training units, wireless schools, bombing and gunnery schools, a flight engineers' school, air navigation schools, air observer schools, radio direction finding (radar) schools, specialist schools, and a few supplementary schools. The BCATP contributed over 130,000 aircrew to the war effort.[33]

Second World War recruiting poster for the RCAF.

Home defence was overseen by two commands of the Home War Establishment: Western Air Command and Eastern Air Command. Located on the west and east coasts of Canada, these commands grew to 37 squadrons, and were responsible for protecting Canada's coasts from enemy attack and for protecting allied shipping. Threats included German U-boats along the east coast and in Atlantic shipping lanes and the potential of attack by Japanese forces. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, more squadrons were deployed to the west. Canadian units were sent to Alaska to assist the Americans in Alaska's defence during the Aleutian Islands Campaign.

Timekeeping personnel of the RCAF Women's Division, No. 2 Service Flying Training School, RCAF Station Uplands, 1942. The RCAF was the first service branch to actively recruit women, doing so throughout the war.

Domestic RCAF squadron codes, 1939–45

Under the oversight of RCAF Overseas, forty-eight RCAF squadrons were involved in overseas operational duties in Britain, northwest Europe, North Africa, and Southeast Asia. These squadrons participated in most roles, including fighter, night fighter, fighter intruder, reconnaissance, anti-shipping, anti-submarine, strategic bombing, transport, and fighter-bomber. RCAF squadrons often included non-RCAF personnel, and RCAF personnel were also members of Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons.[34] High-scoring Canadian fighter pilots include George Beurling, Don Laubman, James (Stocky) Edwards and Robert Fumerton.[35][36]

The RCAF played key roles in the Battle of Britain, antisubmarine warfare during the Battle of the Atlantic, the bombing campaigns against German industries (notably with No. 6 Group, RAF Bomber Command), and close support of Allied forces during the Battle of Normandy and subsequent land campaigns in northwest Europe. RCAF squadrons and personnel were also involved with operations in Egypt, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Ceylon, India, and Burma.

Of the operations of the RCAF, the most costly was the strategical bombing offensive against Germany. By October 1942, the RCAF had five bomber squadrons serving with Bomber Command. 425 Squadron was made up of French-Canadians, through English was the language of command for all squadrons.[37] In January 1943, 11 bomber squadrons were formed by transferring all of the Canadians serving in the RAF to RCAF, which become No. 6 Group of Bomber Command under Air Vice-Marshal G.E. Brookes.[37] The air crews serving in 6 Group were based in the Vale of York, requiring longer flights to Germany.[37] The Vale of York was also a region inclined to be foggy and icy in the winter, making take-off and landings dangerous.[37] Furthermore, 6 Group continued to fly obsolete Wellington and Halifax bombers and only received their first Lancaster bombers in August 1943.[37]

Air and groundcrew of a No. 428 Squadron RCAF Lancaster bomber, August 18, 1944. No. 428 Squadron was a part of No. 6 Group RCAF.

No. 6 Group lost 100 bombers in air raids over Germany, suffering a 7% loss ratio.[37] Morale suffered because of the heavy losses, with many bombers became unserviceable, failed to take off or returned early.[37] On the night of 20 January 1944, 6 Group was ordered to bomb Berlin. Of the 147 bombers ordered to bomb Berlin, 3 could not take off, 17 turned back over the North Sea, and 9 were shot down.[38] The next night, when 125 bombers were ordered to strike Berlin, 11 failed to take off, 12 turned back and 24 were shot down over Germany.[37] The losses together with the morale problems were felt to be almost a crisis, which led to a new commander for 6 Group being appointed.[37]

On February 29, 1944, Air Vice-Marshal C.M "Black Mike" McEwen took command of 6 Group and brought about improved navigational training and better training for the ground crews.[39] In March 1944, the bombing offensive against Germany was stopped and Bomber Command began bombing targets in France as a prelude to Operation Overlord[38] As France was closer to Britain than Germany, this required shorter flights and imposed less of a burden on the bomber crews.[38]

Only in October 1944 did the strategical bombing offensive resume and 6 Group went back to bombing German cities.[38] By the end of 1944, 6 Group was suffering the lowest losses of any of the Bomber Command groups and the highest accuracy in bombing targets.[38] Altogether, 9,980 Canadians were killed in bombing raids against German cities between 1940 and 1945, making the strategical bombing offensive one of the most costly operations for Canada in World War II.[38]

Crews of No. 400 Squadron RCAF run to their Westland Lysander aircraft during an exercise at RAF Odiham, England, 1941.

Pilots of No. 1 Squadron RCAF (renamed No. 401 Squadron in 1941) with one of their Hawker Hurricanes at Prestwick, Scotland, 30 October 1940. The Squadron was the first RCAF squadron to see action during the war.[40]

A Hawker Hurricane Mark IIE of No. 402 Squadron RCAF based at Warmwell, England, in flight carrying two 250-lb GP bombs.

Mark VC Spitfires of No. 417 Squadron RCAF at Goubrine, Tunisia, May 1943

Two armourers of No 440 Squadron RCAF, trudge through the mud of an airfield near Eindhoven, Netherlands to re-arm a Hawker Typhoon.

Overseas RCAF squadron codes 1940–1945 (400-series):

As Minister of National Defence, Paul Hellyer pushed for the unification of Canada's service branches, including the Royal Canadian Air Force.

In 1964 the Canadian government began to reorganize Canada's armed forces with the aim of integrating the RCAF with the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and the Canadian Army to form the unified Canadian Forces. The purpose of the merger was to reduce costs and increase operating efficiency.[48] The Minister of National Defence, Paul Hellyer stated on 4 November 1966 that "the amalgamation...will provide the flexibility to enable Canada to meet in the most effective manner the military requirements of the future. It will also establish Canada as an unquestionable leader in the field of military organization."[49] A new National Defence Act was passed in April 1967. On 1 February 1968 the Canadian Forces Reorganization Act came into effect and the RCAF ceased to exist. The three branches of the Canadian Forces were unified into a single service with the aim of improving Canada's military effectiveness and flexibility.

Six commands were established for the unified forces:

1. Mobile Command was composed of former Canadian Army ground forces, as well as the army's tactical helicopters (CH-135 Twin Huey, CH-136 Kiowa, CH-147 Chinook, CH-113A Voyageur) and CF-5 tactical and ground attack aircraft.

2. Maritime Command operated aircraft in support of former RCN vessels as well as maritime patrol and reconnaissance missions, including CH-124 Sea King, CP-107 Argus, and the CP-121 Tracker.

3. Air Defence Command consisted primarily of CF-101 Voodoo fighter-interceptor aircraft and the radar networks of DEW Line, Mid-Canada Line and Pinetree Line early warning stations.

4. Air Transport Command was responsible for strategic airlift and refueling aircraft. Its primary role was the transportation of Mobile Command ground troops to and from distant conflict zones. The CC-137 Husky was used in this capacity.

5. Training Command was responsible for aircrew and trades training across all commands in the armed forces.

6. Materiel Command provided maintenance and supply support to the other commands.

The Snowbirds performing at their 1000th official show, May 1990. The aerobatic team, flying the CT-114 Tutor, was formally created in 1971.

Along with these six new commands, Communications Systems and Canadian Forces Europe were formed. Communications Systems was formed into a command in 1970. In 1971, the Snowbirds aerobatic team, flying the CT-114 Tutor trainer, was formally created to demonstrate the flying skills of Canadian air force personnel. The team continues the flying demonstration tradition of previous Canadian air force aerobatic teams. The Snowbirds were designated a squadron (No. 431 Air Demonstration Squadron) in 1978.

On 2 September 1975, the Canadian Forces transferred the air assets of all commands to a newly formed Air Command (AIRCOM). Air Defence Command and Air Transport Command were abolished. In their place, Air Defence Group and Air Transport Group were formed and made subordinate to Air Command. The air assets of Maritime Command were transferred to a newly formed Maritime Air Group. Air training became the responsibility of a newly created 14 Air Training Group and the air assets of Mobile Command were transferred to a newly formed 10 Tactical Air Group. No. 1 Canadian Air Group was formed in Europe to control all air assets there. AIRCOM closely resembled the old RCAF as the new command handled all the aviation requirements of Canada's military.

A Canadian CF-18 Hornet escorts a Soviet Tu-95 bomber, January, 1987. The Hornet was introduced in the 1980s as a multirole replacement for the service's fleet of CF-101 Voodoos, CF-104 Starfighters and CF-116 Freedom Fighters.

Several bases closed during the 1970s–1990s as aircraft changes took place. As CF-18A/B Hornet tactical fighter bombers were acquired, CF-104 Starfighter and CF-101 Voodoo aircraft were retired in the early-mid-1980s, leading to the closing of CFB Chatham and CFB Baden Soellingen and various bombing ranges. The CF-116 fighter aircraft and Boeing 707 transport/refuelling aircraft were retired. Also, over the years, the stations of the three radar early warning lines were modernized or closed. In the late 1970s AIRCOM replaced the CP-107 Argus and CP-121 Tracker with the CP-140 Aurora/CP-140A Arcturus maritime patrol aircraft.

The RCAF used British roundels and other markings until 1946, when Canada began using its own insignia identity. The British roundel existed in several versions. During the Second World War the red circle was painted out or reduced in size on some aircraft active in the Pacific theatre to avoid confusion with the Japanese Hinomaru. Roundels were also modified to be less visible on camouflaged aircraft or to make them more visible.

Canada was the first Commonwealth country to dispense with the RAF system.[62] The maple leaf replaced the British-style inner circle to give it a distinctive Canadian character. Although the maple leaf roundel was approved for use by the RCAF in 1924, it was not until after the war that it began to be used on aircraft. It was, however, used on the ensign beginning in 1941.[63] Popularization of the "maple leaf" roundel during the war years was partly achieved through unofficial means, as the Ottawa RCAF Flyers hockey team wore a variant of the future RCAF "maple leaf" roundel on team sweaters.[64] Following the Second World War, from 1946 to 1948 a roundel with a red leaf set inside a blue disk (referred to as the RCAF Type 1 roundel) was used on non-camouflaged aircraft.[65] Several versions of the maple leaf roundel existed from wartime to 1965. Sizes of the leaf and the ring thickness sometimes changed, and some versions of the RCAF roundel included a white or yellow outline, which were specific to certain aircraft.

The realistic-looking "silver maple" style of leaf (referred to as the "RCAF" roundel) was replaced with the eleven-point stylized leaf of the new Canadian flag in February 1965 (referred to as the "CAF" roundel).[66] A slightly modified standardized version of this roundel (referred to as the "CAF revision E" roundel) was used by Air Command, and continues to be used by the "new" RCAF. An all-red "unification roundel" was used on a few aircraft from 1967 to 1968. Like the RCAF roundel, this new roundel sometimes changed – mainly in the size of the leaf and ring thickness, and one version had a white ring, which was used on certain aircraft. The current RCAF also uses a low visibility tactical grey roundel.

• 
  RAF Type "A" roundel – an example of an RAF roundel used on aircraft 1924–1946
• 
  Type 1 Roundel used on non-camouflaged aircraft 1946–1948
• 
  One version of an RCAF roundel used on aircraft 1946–1965
• 
  Roundel used 1965–1968, and used by Air Command/current RCAF
• 
  Roundel used 1967–1968 on Yukon and a few other selected aircraft.
• 
  Low visibility tactical grey roundel used by Air Command/current RCAF

RCAF aircraft used the British fin flash, which consisted of red and blue vertical bands separated by a white band. In 1955 the red ensign Canadian Flag began replacing the fin flash on aircraft based in Europe. On Canada-based aircraft the flag began replacing the flash in 1958. Beginning in 1965 the new Canadian flag was used.[62]

• 
  Fin flash used to 1958 (to 1955 in Europe)
• 
  Flag used in place of fin flash 1958–1964 (1955–1964 in Europe)
• 
  Flag used on fin starting in 1965 and used by Air Command/current RCAF
• 
  Low visibility tactical grey fin flash used by Air Command/current RCAF

The ensign of the original Royal Canadian Air Force was based on the RAF ensign, a light (sky) blue ensign, but with the Canadian roundel. Until the Second World War the RAF ensign was used by the RCAF; the RCAF ensign with the maple leaf roundel began to be used in 1941. The flag was discontinued when Canada's armed services were unified, but a modified version with the revised roundel and Canadian flag was re-adopted by Air Command 1985. The current RCAF maintains use of this ensign.

• 
  RCAF ensign 1941–1968
• 
  Ensign of Air Command/current RCAF (since 1985)

The badge of the original RCAF was similar to that used by the RAF, the Royal Australian Air Force and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. It consists of the Imperial Crown, an "eagle volant" (flying eagle), a circle which was formerly inscribed from 1924 to 1968 with the RCAF's motto per ardua ad astra (which is usually translated as "Through Adversity to the Stars") - this was changed in 1968 to Sic itur ad astra, translating to "such is the pathway to the stars"; in use to this day - and a scroll inscribed with "Royal Canadian Air Force". The RCAF began using a modified version of the RAF badge in 1924. Once it was learned the badge had never been officially sanctioned, the Chester Herald prepared an improved design, and in January 1943 the badge was approved by the King.[67]

The original badge disappeared when the services were unified. Air Command adopted a new design consisting of the imperial crown, an eagle "rising to sinister from the Canadian Astral crown" on an azure background, the Crown of Stars, which represents Air Command, and a new motto.[68] This badge was replaced by a new badge in September 2013. The new badge includes the eagle volant used in the pre-unification RCAF badge.[69]

The Royal Canadian Air Force Tartan was designed by Kinloch Anderson Ltd. in Edinburgh, Scotland at the request of the RCAF, and is based on the Anderson tartan.[70] Colors are primarily dark blue, light blue, and maroon. The design was officially endorsed by the Air Council in May 1942. The tartan was used on RCAF pipe band kilts and on other articles of clothing and regalia. After unification of Canada's armed forces, the tartan continued to be used.

The original Royal Canadian Air Force used a rank structure[71] similar to that of the Royal Air Force, with the exceptions, in the enlisted ranks, of the RCAF having the ranks of Warrant Officer 1 and 2, not having the ranks of Senior Aircraftman or Junior Technician, and not distinguishing between aircrew and non-aircrew for Sergeants and above. The rank structure is almost identical to that of the Royal Australian Air Force, once again with the exception of Warrant Officer 2. RCAF Women's Division personnel used a different rank structure. When the age limit for British Commonwealth Air Training Plan aircrew recruits was lowered to seventeen in 1941, the recruits were placed into the temporary rank of "Boy" until they reached their eighteenth birthday and became eligible for flying training.[72] With the exception of the rank of "aviator", the current RCAF uses the army-style ranks instituted by the Canadian Forces when unification took place in 1968.

This chart compares ranks of the former and current RCAF. Ranks are listed with the most senior rank at the top.

Uniforms of the original RCAF were nearly identical to the Royal Air Force and other Dominion air forces in cut, colour and insignia. Personnel wore RAF-pattern blue battledress, though some personnel in the 2nd Tactical Air Force and in the Pacific also wore army khaki battledress with standard RCAF insignia. A khaki-drill uniform was introduced for wear in summer and warm climates.

During the Second World War Canadian airmen and airwomen posted outside Canada wore a Canada nationality shoulder flash, as did Canadians serving with the RAF. This was usually light blue lettering on curved blue-grey for commissioned officers and Warrant Officer 1, and light blue lettering curved above an eagle for other ranks, except for warm weather uniforms, which had red embroidery on khaki-drill. Later in the war all RCAF personnel wore this nationality distinction, which was continued until unification.

After the war, the insignia for Warrant Officer I changed from the Royal coat of arms to the Canadian coat of arms. Along with the rest of the Commonwealth, insignia using the Imperial Crown changed from the Tudor Crown to the St. Edward's Crown after the accession of Queen Elizabeth II to the Throne of Canada.

After unification, all personnel in the Canadian Forces wore a rifle green uniform with only cap and collar badges (a modified version of the former RCAF badge) as distinguishing marks for pilots and aircrew. Use of this uniform continued under Air Command from 1975 until the mid-1980s, when Air Command adopted a blue "distinctive environmental uniform". This uniform continued to be used until 2015 when the rank structure and insignia changed.[76] Insignia changed from golden yellow to a pearl-grey colour similar to that worn before unification of Canada's Armed Forces in 1968 and the button color was changed. Other changes reflect the replacement of the rank of "private" with that of "aviator", and officers' tunic sleeve insignia were modified.[77]