Sanskrit nominals

Sanskrit has inherited from its reconstructed parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of nominal morphology. Endings may be added directly to the root, or more frequently and especially in the later language, to a stem formed by the addition of a suffix to it.[1]

Sanskrit is a highly inflected language that preserves all the declensional types found in Proto-Indo-European, including a few residual heteroclitic r/n-stems.[2][3]

Basics

Declension of a noun in Sanskrit[lower-greek 1] involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': three numbers and eight cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number is around 18 or so.[4] Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.

In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:[5][6]

13 numbers[lower-greek 2]singular[lower-greek 3], dual[lower-greek 4], plural[lower-greek 5]
23 genders[lower-greek 6]masculine[lower-greek 7], feminine[lower-greek 8], neuter[lower-greek 9]
38 cases[lower-greek 10]nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative

Building blocks

Roots

The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings[lower-greek 11] directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Sanskrit, especially the older form of Indo-Aryan termed Vedic Sanskrit.[7]

Ancient noun roots in kindred languages
SanskritLatinPIEGlossary
pā́d-pē(d)s, ped-*pódsfoot[lower-alpha 1]
vā́c-vōx, vōc-*wṓkʷsspeech
rā́j-rēx, rēg-*h₃rḗǵsking, ruler[lower-alpha 1]

Stems

In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.

Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated owing to the fact that a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor. [8][9]

Cases

Sanskrit nouns are declined for eight cases:

The kāraka classification

In the ancient literature, Pāṇini identified six classes as kārakas[lower-alpha 2], operating as accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, and locative cases.[11] He defined them as follows (Aṣtādhyāyi, I.4.24–54):

  1. Kartā [lower-alpha 3]: 'he/that which is independent in action'. This is equivalent to the nominative case. [12]
  2. Karman [lower-alpha 4]: 'what the agent seeks most to attain': the accusative.
  3. Karaṇa [lower-alpha 5] 'that which effects most': the instrumental.
  4. Sampradāna [lower-alpha 6]: 'he whom one aims at with the object': the dative.
  5. Apādāna [lower-alpha 7]: '(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)': the ablative.
  6. Adhikaraṇa [lower-alpha 8]: or 'substratum': the locative.

Pāṇini did not identify the genitive Sambandha and vocative Sambodhana as kārakas.[13]

Endings

The basic scheme of suffixion[lower-greek 12] is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.

However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi, such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r and so on.[15][16]

Singular Dual Plural
Masc./Fem Neu. Masc./Fem Neu. Masc./Fem Neu.
Nominative -s -∅ -au -as -i
Accusative -am
Instrumental -bhyām -bhis
Dative -e -bhyas
Ablative -as
Genitive -os -ām
Locative -i -su

Declension

Classification

Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:

  • Short-vowel stems
    • a-stems
    • i- and u-stems
    • ṛ-stems
  • Long-vowel stems
    • ā-stems
    • ī- and ū-stems
  • Diphthong stems
  • Consonant stems
    • Bare stems
    • as/is/us-stems
    • an- and in-stems
    • ant-/mant-/vant-stems
    • vāṅs-stems

When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms. This happens most profusely in the a-stem class. However, for reasons noted below, grammars both traditional and modern tend to start with this class.[17][18][19]

a-stems

The vast majority of nouns in Sanskrit belong to this class, and are masculine or neuter. The position of the accent is maintained throughout, except in the masculine vocative singular. The paradigms are illustrated in their pre-sandhi forms, along with the formation treatment using two stems in the masculine devá- [upper-alpha 1][lower-alpha 9] and kā́ma- [upper-alpha 2] and two in the neuter yugá- [upper-alpha 3][lower-alpha 1] and phála- [upper-alpha 4] with different syllables accented.[20][21][22][23]

a-stem adjectives are also to be found in big numbers, they are invariably masculine or neuter – feminines being formed either in -ā or, less frequently -ī. a-stem adjectives are also declined as below.[24]

a-stem masc singular
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdev·á-kā́m·a-
Nominative-s-a- + -s-asdev·á·skā́m·a·s
Accusative-am-a- + -am-amdev·á·mkā́m·a·m
Instrumental -ena-enadev·énakā́m·ena
Dative-e-a- + -a- + e + a-āyadev·ā́yakā́m·āya
Ablative-as-as -āt-ātdev·ā́tkā́m·āt
Genitive-as-as + ya-asyadev·ásyakā́m·asya
Locative-i-a- + -i-edev·ékā́m·e
Vocative [lower-alpha 10]-adév·akā́m·a
a-stem masc dual
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdev·á-kā́m·a-
Nominative
Accusative
Vocative
-au-au-audev·áukā́m·au
Instrumental
Dative
Ablative
-bhyām-ā- + bhyām-ābhyāmdev·ā́bhyāmkā́m·ābhyām
Genitive
Locative
-os-a- + -y- + -os-ayosdev·á·yoskā́m·a·yos
a-stem masc plural
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdev·á-kā́m·a-
Nominative, Vocative-as-a- + -as-āsdev·ā́skā́m·ās
Accusative-asas -ān (-āṅs)-ān (-āṅs [lower-alpha 11])dev·ā́nkā́m·ān
Instrumental-bhis-bhis -ais-aisdev·aískā́m·ais
Dative
Ablative
-bhyas-a- + -i- + -bhyas-ebhyasdev·ébhyaskā́m·ebhyas
Genitive-ām-ā- + -n- + ām-ānāmdev·ā́nāmkā́m·ānām
Locative-su-a- + -i- + su-eṣudev·éṣukā́m·eṣu

Neuters only differ from the masculine in the nominative and accusative forms, the two forms always being the same:

a-stem neuter sing, dual, plu
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingyug·á-phál·a-
Nom, Acc SG-a- + -m-amyug·á·mphál·a·m
Nom, Acc DU-a- + -ī-eyug·éphál·e
Nom, Acc PL-i-a- + an + -i-āniyug·ā́niphál·āni

i-stems

Final i-stem endings are closer to the standard set compared to the a-stem declension. In general, the -i is gunated in some cases, and a -n- is inserted intervocalically between the stem and the ending in a few other cases, especially in the neuter. The paradigms are illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms for masculine agní- [upper-alpha 5][lower-alpha 12], feminine gáti- [upper-alpha 6][lower-alpha 1] and neuter vā́ri- [upper-alpha 7].[26][27]

i-stem masc/fem
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingagní-gáti-
Nom-s-sagní·sgáti·s
Acc-am-am-magní·mgáti·m
Ins-n- + -ā
-nā
agní-nāgáty·ā
Da-eguna(i) + e-ayeagn·áy·egát·ay·e
Abl, Gen-asguna(i) + s
-i- + -a- + -as
-es [lower-alpha 13]agn·ésgát·es
gáty·ās
Loc-i-i -au-auagn·aúgát·au
Voc-eágn·egát·e
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingagní-gáti-
N.A.V-au-auagn·ī́gát·ī
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmagní·bhyāmgáti·bhyām
Gen, Loc-os-i- + -os-yosagny·ósgáty·os
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingagní-gáti-
Nom, Voc-asguna(i) + -as-ayasagn·áy·asgát·ay·as
Acc-asas -īn (-īṅs)-īn (-īṅs [lower-alpha 11])agn·ī́ngát·īn
Ins-bhis-bhisagní·bhisgáti·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasagní·bhyasgáti·bhyas
Gen-ām-ī + -n- ām-īnāmagn·īnā́mgát·īnām
Loc-su-suagní·ṣugáti·ṣu

Neuters as always remain identical in the nominative and accusative, and also in the vocative. In the other cases, a -n-[lower-alpha 14][lower-greek 13] is inserted between the stem and the standard endings in all those cases where to avoid a collision of two vowels, making the whole process almost perfectly straightforward.

i-stem neut
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingvā́ri-
N.A.Vvā́ri
Ins-n--nāvā́ri·ṇ·ā
Dat-e-n--nevā́ri·ṇ·e
Abl,Gen-as-n--nasvā́ri·ṇ·as
Loc-i-n--nivā́ri·ṇ·i
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingvā́ri-
N.A.V-n--nīvā́ri·ṇ·ī
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmvā́ri·bhyām
Gen, Loc-os-n--nosvā́ri·ṇ·os
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingvā́ri-
N.A.V-i-īni-īnivā́rī·ṇ·i
Ins-bhis-bhisvā́ri·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasvā́ri·bhyas
Gen-ām-ī + -n- ām-īnāmvā́r·īṇām
Loc-su-suvā́ri·ṣu

u-stems

i- and u-stem declensions are so similar that they can be grouped together. The u-stem paradigms illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms are for masculine śátru- [upper-alpha 8], feminine dhenú- [upper-alpha 9] and neuter mádhu- [upper-alpha 10][lower-alpha 1].[28][29]

u-stem masc/fem
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingśátru-dhenú-
Nom-s-sśátru·sdhenú·s
Acc-am-am-mśátru·mdhenú·m
Ins-n- + -ā
-nā
śátru-ṇādhenv·ā̀
Dat-eguna(u) + e-aveśátr·av·edhen·áv·e
Abl, Gen-asguna(u) + s
-u- + -a- + -as [lower-alpha 13]
-osśátr·osdhen·ós
dhenv·ā̀s
Loc-i-i -au-auśátr·audhen·aú
Voc-ośátr·odhen·ó
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingśátru-dhenú-
N.A.V-au-auśátr·ūdhen·ū́
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmśátru·bhyāmdhenú·bhyām
Gen, Loc-os-u- + -os-vosśátrv·osdhenv·ós
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingśátru-dhenú-
Nom, Voc-asguna(u) + -as-avasśátr·av·asdhen·áv·as
Acc-asas -ūn (-ūṅs)
-ūs
-ūn (-ūṅs [lower-alpha 11])
-ūs
śátr·ūndhen·ūs
Ins-bhis-bhisśátru·bhisdhenú·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasśátru·bhyasdhenú·bhyas
Gen-ām-ū + -n- ām-ūnāmśátr·ūṇāmdhen·ūnā́m
Loc-su-suśátru·ṣudhenú·ṣu

Neuters are also just as straightforward as for i-stems.

u-stem neut
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingmádhu-
N.A.Vmádhu
Ins-n--nāmádhu·n·ā
Dat-e-n--nemádhu·n·e
Abl, Gen-as-n--nasmádhu·n·as
Loc-i-n--nimádhu·n·i
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingmádhu-
N.A.V-n--nīmádhu·n·ī
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmmádhu·bhyām
Gen, Loc-os-n--nosmádhu·n·os
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingmádhu-
N.A.V-i-i -ūni-ūnimádhū·n·i
Ins-bhis-bhismádhu·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasmádhu·bhyas
Gen-ām-ū + -n- ām-ūnāmmádh·ūnām
Loc-su-sumádhu·ṣu

i- and u-stem adjectives are a small class of so—called primary adjectives, such as bahus, -us, -u [upper-alpha 11] and śucis, -is, -i [upper-alpha 12], as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become .[30]

ṛ-stems

ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ [upper-alpha 13], though also include kinship terms like pitṛ [upper-alpha 14][lower-alpha 1], mātṛ [upper-alpha 15][lower-alpha 1], and svasṛ [upper-alpha 16][lower-alpha 1].[31] The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.

ṛ-stem masc/fem/neut
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdātṛ́-svásṛ-pitṛ́-dhātṛ́-[upper-alpha 17][lower-alpha 15]
Nom-svṛddhi(ṛ) (-rs)dātā́svásā́pitā́dhātṛ́
Acc-amvṛddhi(ṛ) + -am
guna(ṛ) + -am[lower-alpha 16]
-āram
-aram
dāt·ā́r·amsvás·ār·ampit·ár·amdhātṛ́
Insdātr·ā́svásr·āpitr·ā́dhātṛ́·ṇ·ā
Dat-e-edātr·ésvásr·epitr·édhātṛ́·ṇ·e
Abl, Gen-as-as -ur-urdāt·úrsvás·urpit·úrdhātṛ́·ṇ·as
Loc-iguna(ṛ) + -i-aridāt·ár·isvás·ar·ipit·ár·idhātṛ́·ṇ·i
Voc [lower-alpha 10]guna(ṛ)-ardā́t·arsvás·arpít·ardhā́tṛ, dhā́tar
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdātṛ́-svásṛ-pitṛ́-dhātṛ́
N.A.V-auvṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -au-ārau / -araudāt·ā́r·ausvás·ār·aupit·ár·audhātṛ́·ṇ·ī
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmdātṛ́·bhyāmsvásṛ·bhyāmpitṛ́·bhyāmdhātṛ́·bhyām
Gen, Loc-osṛ + -os-rosdātr·óssvásr·ospitr·ósdhātṛ́·ṇ·os
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdātṛ́-svásṛ-pitṛ́-dhātṛ́
N.V-asvṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -as-āras / -arasdāt·ār·assvás·ār·aspit·ar·asdhātṝ́́·ṇ·i
Acc-asas -ṝn (-ṝṅs)-ṝn (-ṝṅs [lower-alpha 11])dāt·ṝ́nsvás·ṝnpit·ṝ́ndhātṝ́́·ṇ·i
Ins-bhis-bhisdātṛ́·bhissvásṛ·bhispitṛ́·bhisdhātṛ́·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasdātṛ́·bhyassvásṛ·bhyaspitṛ́·bhyasdhātṛ́·bhyas
Gen-ām-ṛ/ṝ + -n- ām-ṛ/ṝṇām [lower-greek 14]dāt·ṝṇā́msvás·ṝṇāmpit·ṝṇā́mdhāt·ṝṇā́m
Loc-su-sudātṛ́·ṣusvásṛ·ṣupitṛ́·ṣudhātṛ́·ṣu

A single irregular i-stem noun,[32] sakhi [upper-alpha 18][lower-alpha 17], has a stem in -i but declines similarly to the above – simply with y i ī taking the place of r ṛ ṝ:

SingularDualPlural
Nom sákh·āsákh·āy·ausákh·āy·as
Acc sákh·āy·amsákh·īn
Ins sákhy·āsákhi·bhyāmsákhi·bhis
Dat sákhy·esákhi·bhy·as
Abl sákh·ay·ur
Gen sákhy·ossákh·īnām
Loc sákhy·au, sákh·ay·isákhi·ṣu
Voc sákh·esákh·āy·ausákh·āy·as

ā, ī- and ū-stems

This category is made of ā-, ī- and ū-stems, almost entirely feminine, polysyllabic derivative nouns.[33]

ā-stems

A few forms deviate from the standard in many of which an interspersed -y- can be observed. The vocative also undergoes the usual accent shift.[34][35]

ā-stem fem
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingsénā-[upper-alpha 19]kanyā̀-[upper-alpha 20]
Nom-s-ssénākanyā̀
Acc-am-āmsénā·mkanyā̀·m
Ins e + -ā-ayāsén·ay·ākany·ày·ā
Dat-e-ā + y +vṛddhi(e)-āyaisénā·yaikanyā̀·yai
Abl, Gen-as-ā + y + vṛddhi(a)s-āyāssénā·yāskanyā̀·yās
Loc-i-i -ā + yām-āyāmsénā·yāmkanyā̀·yām
Voc [lower-alpha 10]-e-esén·ekány·e
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingsénā-kanyà-
N.A.V-au-au -e-esé·nekany·è
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmsénā·bhyāmkanyā̀·bhyām
Gen, Loc-ose + -os-ayossén·ay·oskany·ày·os
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingsénā-kanyā̀-
Nom, Voc-as-ā + as-āssénā·skanyā̀·s
Acc-as-ā + as-āssénā·skanyā̀·s
Ins-bhis-bhissénā·bhiskanyā̀·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyassénā·bhyaskanyā̀·bhyas
Gen-ām-ā + -n- + -ām-ānāmsénā·nāmkanyā̀·nām
Loc-su-susénā·sukanyā̀·su

ī- and ū-stems

Again most ī- and ū-stem nouns are feminine.[36][37] ī- and ū-stem adjectives also belong here.[38]

ī- and ū-stems fem
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdevī́-[upper-alpha 21]vadhū́-[upper-alpha 22][lower-alpha 1]
Nom-s-s[lower-alpha 18]devī́vadhū́·s
Acc-am-a-īm, -ūmdevī́·mvadhū́·m
Insdevy·ā̀vadhv·ā̀
Dat-evṛddhi(e)-aidevy·aìvadhv·aì
Abl, Gen-asvṛddhi(a)s-āsdevy·ā̀svadhv·ā̀s
Loc-i-i -ām-āmdevy·ā̀mvadhv·ā̀m
Voc [lower-alpha 10][lower-alpha 19]dévivádhu
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdevī-vadhū-
N.A.V-au-audevy·aùvadhv·aù
I.D.A-bhyām-bhyāmdevī́·bhyāmvadhū́·bhyām
Gen, Loc-os-osdevy·òsvadhv·òs
CaseStd EndingTreatmentEndingdevī-vadhū-
Nom, Voc-as-asdevy·àsvadhv·às
Acc-asas -īs, -ūs-īs, -ūsdevī́·svadhū́·s
Ins-bhis-bhisdevī́·bhisvadhū́·bhis
Dat, Abl-bhyas-bhyasdevī́·bhyasvadhū́·bhyas
Gen-ām-n- + -ām-nāmdevī́·nāmvadhū́·nām
Loc-su-sudevī́·ṣuvadhū́·ṣu

Diphthong stems

Stems ending in Sanskrit diphthongs (e, ai, o, au) follow a fairly regular pattern, whilst subject to sandhi rules as usual.[39][40]

CaseStd Endingseraí[upper-alpha 23][lower-alpha 20] [upper-alpha 24][lower-alpha 1] naú[upper-alpha 25][lower-alpha 21]
Nom-sse·srā́·s gaú·s naú·s
Acc-amsay·amrā́y·am gā́·m nā́v·am
Inssay·ārāy·ā́ gáv·ā nāv·ā́
Dat-esay·erāy·é gáv·e nāv·é
Abl, Gen-asse·srāy·ás gó·s nāv·ás
Loc-isay·irāy·í gáv·i nāv·í
Vocserā́·s gaú·s naú·s
CaseStd Endingseraí naú
N.A.V-ausay·aurā́y·au gā́v·au nā́v·au
I.D.A-bhyāmse·bhyāmrā·bhyā́m gó·bhyām nau·bhyā́m
Gen, Loc-ossay·osrāy·ós gáv·os nāv·ós
CaseStd Endingseraí naú
Nom, Voc-assay·asrā́y·as gā́v·as nā́v·as
Acc-assay·asrā́y·as gā́·s nā́v·as
Ins-bhisse·bhisrā·bhís gó·bhis nau·bhís
Dat, Abl-bhyasse·bhyasrā·bhyás gó·bhyas nau·bhyás
Gen-āmsay·āmrāy·ā́m gáv·ām nāv·ā́m
Loc-suse·ṣurā·sú gó·ṣu nau·ṣú

Bare-consonant and as/us/is-stem nouns

Consonant stem nouns may have up to 3 different stems, as well as two special forms:

  1. A special lengthened form for the masculine/feminine nominative singular
  2. A special lengthened and/or nasalized form for the neuter nom/acc. plural
  3. A strong stem[lower-greek 15] used for masc./fem. sing. acc., dual nom./acc. and plur. nom.
  4. A medium stem [lower-greek 16] used with oblique cases with consonant endings, as well as the neuter nom./acc. sing.
  5. A weak stem [lower-greek 17] used everywhere else.

One or more of these stems may be identical for some words, but this is generally not regularly predictable from either the nominative singular or the citation form stem. While the stem ending may undergo expected internal sandhi changes as normal, the endings themselves are gracefully regular.[41][42]

Consonant stems
CaseEndingmarút m.[upper-alpha 26]trivṛ́t n.[upper-alpha 27] mánas n. [upper-alpha 28][lower-alpha 1] havís n. [upper-alpha 29]
Nom-s variousmarúttrivṛ́t mánas havís
Acc-ammarút·am
Insmarút·ātrivṛ́t·ā mánas·ā havíṣ·ā
Dat-emarút·etrivṛ́t·e mánas·e havíṣ·e
Abl, gen-asmarút·astrivṛ́t·as mánas·as havíṣ·as
Loc-imarút·itrivṛ́t·i mánas·i havíṣ·i
Voc marút trivṛ́t mánas havís
CaseEndingmarúttrivṛ́t mánas havís
N.A.V-au, -īmarút·autrivṛ́t·au mánas·ī havíṣ·ī
I.D.A-bhyāmmarúd·bhyāmtrivṛ́d·bhyām máno·bhyām havír·bhyām
Gen, loc-osmarút·ostrivṛ́t·os mánas·os havíṣ·os
CaseEndingmarúttrivṛ́t mánas havís
Nom, voc-as, -āni, etcmarút·astrivṛ́nti mánāṅsi havī́ṅṣi
Acc-as, -āni, etcmarút·as
Ins-bhismarúd·bhistrivṛ́d·bhis máno·bhis havír·bhis
Dat, abl-bhyasmarúd·bhyastrivṛ́d·bhyas máno·bhyas havír·bhyas
Gen-āmmarút·āmtrivṛ́t·ām mánas·ām havíṣ·ām
Loc-sumarút·sutrivṛ́t·su mánaḥ·su havíḥ·su

an-stem nouns and in-stem adjectives

an-stem nouns and in-stem adjectives (occurring prolifically in masc. and neu.) show very similar behavior and can be grouped together:[43]

Consonant stems
CaseEndingrā́jan[upper-alpha 30]ātmán[upper-alpha 31] nāman[upper-alpha 32][lower-alpha 1] balín[upper-alpha 33] m.n. yogín[upper-alpha 34] m.n.
Nom-srā́jāātmā́ nā́ma balī́, balí yogī́, yogí
Acc-amrā́jān·amātmā́n·am nā́ma balín·am, balí yogín·am, yogí
Insrā́jñ·āātmán·ā nā́mn·ā balín·ā yogín·ā
Dat-erā́jñ·eātmán·e nā́mn·e balín·e yogín·e
Abl, gen-asrā́jñ·asātmán·as nā́mn·as balín·as yogín·as
Loc-irā́jn·i, rā́jan·iātmán·i nā́mn·i, nā́man·i balín.i yogín·i
Voc [lower-alpha 10] rā́jan ā́tman nā́man, nā́ma bálin, báli yógin, yógi
CaseEndingrā́janātmán nā́man balín yogín
N.A.V-aurā́jān·auātmán·au nā́mn·ī, nā́man·ī balín·au, balín·ī yogín·au, yogín·ī
I.D.A-bhyāmrā́ja·bhyāmātmá·bhyām nā́ma·bhyām balí·bhyām yogí·bhyām
Gen, loc-osrā́jṇ·osātmán·os nā́mn·os balín·os yogín·os
CaseStd Endingrā́janātmán nā́man balín yogín
Nom, voc-asrā́jān·asātmā́n·as nā́m·āni balín·as, balín·i yogín·as, yogín·i
Acc-asrā́jñ·asātmán·as nā́m·āni balín·as yogín·as
Ins-bhisrā́ja·bhisātmá·bhis nā́ma·bhis balí·bhis yogí·bhis
Dat, abl-bhyasrā́ja·bhyasātmá·bhyas nā́ma·bhyas balí·bhyas yogí·bhyas
Gen-āmrā́jñ·āmātmán·ām nā́mn·ām balín·ām yogín·ām
Loc-surā́ja·suātmá·su nā́ma·su balí·ṣu yogí·ṣu

ant-, mant- and vant-stem adjectives

Participial forms in -ant/-at decline as below, with some stem variation with the -n-.[44]. Possessives in -mant and vant- display similar behavior, the difference that stands out is the nom. sing. masc. -mān & -vān.[45] Forms not mentioned fit the existing pattern with full regularity:

Consonant stems singular
CaseEndingbháv·ant-[upper-alpha 35] m.n.ad·ánt-[upper-alpha 36] m.n. júhv·ant-[upper-alpha 37] m.n. paśu·mánt-[upper-alpha 38] m.n. bhága·vant-[upper-alpha 39][lower-alpha 22] m.n.
Nom-sbháv·an, bháv·atad·án, adát júhv·an, júhv·at paśu·mā́n, paśu·mát bhága·vān, bhága·vat
Acc-ambháv·ant·am, bháv·atad·ánt·am, ad·át júhv·ant·am, júhv·at paśu·mánt·am, -mát bhága·vant·am, -vat
Insbháv·at·āad·at·ā́ júhv·at·ā pasu·mát·ā bhága·vat·ā
etc etc
Voc [lower-alpha 10] bháv·an, bháv·at ád·an, ád·at júhv·an, júhv·at páśu·man, -mat bhág·avan, -vat
Dual
N.A.V -au, -ī bháv·ant·au, -ant·ī ad·ánt·au, ad·at·ī́ júhv·at·au, júhv·at·ī paśu·mánt·au, -mát·ī bhága·vant·au, -vat·ī
Plural
N.V -as, -i bháv·ant·as, -ant·i ad·ánt·as, ad·ánt·i júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i paśu·mánt·as, -mánti bhága·vant·as, -vant·i
Acc -as bháv·at·as, -ant·i ad·át·as, ad·ánt·i júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i paśu·mát·as, -mánt·i bhága·vat·as, -vant·i
Ins -bhis bháv·ad·bhis ad·ád·bhis júhv·ad·bhis paśu·mád·bhis bhága·vad·bhis

vāṅs-stem perfect participles

These forms exhibit similarities with the -vant stems illustrated above, with the main exception that in the weakest forms, before vowel endings, -vāṅs is zero-graded alongside the disappearance of the -ṅ-.[46][47]

CaseEnding vidvā́ṅs-[upper-alpha 40] m.n. babhūváṅs-[upper-alpha 41] m.n.
Nom-s vid·vā́n, vid·vát babhū·vā́n, babhū·vát
Acc-am vid·vā́ṅs·am, -vát babhū·vā́ṅs·am, -vát
Ins vid·úṣ·ā babhū·vúṣ·ā
etc etc
Voc [lower-alpha 10] víd·van, víd·vat bábhū·van, bábhu·vat
Dual
N.A.V -au, -ī vid·vā́ṅs·au, vid·úṣ·ī babhū·vāṅs·au, babhū·vúṣ·ī
Plural
N.V -as, -i vid·vāṅs·as, vid·vā́ṅs·i babhū·vā́ṅs·as, babhū·vúṣ·i
Acc -as vid·úṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i babhū·vúṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i
Ins -bhis vid·vád·bhis babhū·vád·bhis

Primary derivation

A small closed class of comparatives and superlatives are directly formed on adjectival roots, after dropping the original stem suffix. The comparative takes the suffix -īyān (yāṃsas), yasī, yas, which declines as a consonant- and ī-stem adjective; the superlative takes -iṣṭhas, ā, am. The root is strengthened to the guṇa grade.

In some adjectives the original form of the root has been obscured by internal sandhi, making the outcome somewhat irregular. Thus:

Secondary derivation

The secondary suffixes of comparison are -taras, ā, am for comparative and -tamas, ā, am for superlative. They are appended to the inflectional base, with no modification of the stem. Usually, the pada stem is used for consonant-stem adjectives, but those in a simple -n sometimes retain it.

  • priyatara-, priyatama- from priya-;
  • vṛṣatara-, vṛṣatama- from vṛṣan-, but vṛṣantama- is also attested.

Numerals

Cardinal numbers

The numbers[48][49] from one to ten, along with cognates in closely related languages, are:

Numerals
SanskritLatinProto-Indo-European
éka-ūn-*Hoi-no-, *Hoi-k(ʷ)o-
dvá-duo*d(u)wo-
trí-trēs, tria*trei-, *tri-
catúr-quattuor*kʷetwor-, *kʷetur-
páñca-quīnque*penkʷe
ṣáṣ-sex*s(w)eḱs
saptá-, sápta-septem*septm̥
aṣṭá-, áṣṭa-octō*oḱtō
náva-novem*newn̥
dáśa-decem*deḱm̥(t)

All numbers in Sanskrit can be declined in all the cases. From one to four, the cardinal numerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, gender and case; from 5 to 19, in number and case, with only one form for all genders; from 20 onwards in case only.[50]

Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined as below:[51]

Three Four
MasculineNeuterFeminineMasculineNeuterFeminine
Nominative tráyastrī́ṇitisráscatvā́rascatvā́ricátasras
Accusative trīntrī́ṇitisráscatúrascatvā́ricátasras
Instrumental tribhís tisṛ́bhis catúrbhis catasṛ́bhis
Dative tribhyás tisṛ́bhyas catúrbhyas catasṛ́bhyas
Ablative tribhyás tisṛ́bhyas catúrbhyas catasṛ́bhyas
Genitive trayāṇā́m tisṛṇā́m caturṇā́m catasṛṇā́m
Locative triṣú tisṛ́ṣu catúrṣu catasṛ́ṣu

The numbers from 11 to 19 are:

ékādaśam, dvā́daśam, tráyodaśam, cáturdaśam, páñcadaśam, ṣóḍaśam, saptádaśam, aṣṭā́daśam, návadaśam.

The tens from 20 to 90 are:

(d)viṃśatí, triṃśát, catvāriṃśát, pañcāśát, ṣaṣṭí, saptatí, aśītí, navatí.

The joint numbers:

21 – ékaviṃśati, 22 – dvā́viṃśati, 23 – trayóviṃśati, ..., 26 – ṣáḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 – dvā́́śīti, 83 – trayā́śīti, 88 – aṣṭā́śīti.

The hundreds are:

śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.

The larger numbers:

1000sahásra
10,000ayúta
100,000lakṣá
1,000,000prayúta
10,000,000kóṭi
108arbudá
109mahā́rbuda
1010kharvá
1011nikharvá[52][lower-alpha 25]
10140asaṅkhyeya!

Compounding numbers

All the numerals may be compounded attributively in their stem form:[53]

CompoundMeaning
dvi-pāda-two-footed
śata-mukha-hundred-mouthed
daśa-kumāra-carita-ten-youth-tale, i.e., the story of the ten princes

Ordinal numbers

The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:

  1. prathamás, -ā́
  2. dvitī́yas, -ā
  3. tṛtī́yas, -ā
  4. caturthás, -ī́
  5. pañcamás, -ī́
  6. ṣaṣṭhás, -ī
  7. saptamás, -ī́
  8. aṣṭamás, -ī́
  9. navamás, -ī́
  10. daśamás, -ī́

Other numbers:

11. – ekādaśás, ... 20. – viṃśatitamás (viṃśás), 30. – triṃśattamás (triṃśás), 40. – catvāriṃśattamás, 50. – pañcāśattamás, 60. – ṣaṣtitamás, 70. – saptatitamás, 80. – aśītitamás, 90. – navatitamás, 100. – śatatamás, 1000. – sahasratamás.

Pronouns and determiners

Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their declension largely like other declinable classes such as nouns, adjectives and numerals, so that they can all be classed together under nominals. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes.[54][55]

Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: person.[56]

Pronouns[lower-greek 19] are declined for case[lower-greek 20], number[lower-greek 21], and gender[lower-greek 22]. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.

The official list of Sanskrit pronouns is: sarva, viśva, ubha, ubhaya, utara, utama, anya, anyatara, tvat, tva, nema, sama, sima, pūrva, para, avara, dakṣiṇa, uttara, apara, adhara, sva, antara; tyad, tad, yad, etad, idam, adam; eka, dvi, yuṣmad, asmad, and kim.[57]

First- and second-person pronouns

Sanskrit pronouns in the first[lower-greek 23] and second[lower-greek 24] person are theoretically termed asmad and yuṣmad respectively.

They resemble one another in how they are declined, and similarly do not mark gender. These pronouns have shortened, enclitic forms in the accusative, dative, and genitive cases (parenthesized in the table below).[58][59]

sing., dual, plu.
Caseasmadyuṣmad
N.ahámtvám
A.mā́m (mā)tvā́m (tvā)
I.máyātváyā
D.máhyam (me)túbhyam (te)
Ab.máttvát
G.máma (me)táva (te)
L.máy·itváy·i
Caseasmadyuṣmad
N.A.Vāvā́myuvā́m
I.D.Ab.āvā́·bhyāmyuvā́·bhyām
G.L.āváy·osyuváy·os
& A.D.G.(nau)(vām)
Caseasmadyuṣmad
N.vayámyūyám
A.asmā́n (nas)yuṣmā́n (vas)
I.asmā́·bhisyuṣmā́·bhis
D.asmá·bhyam (nas)yuṣmá·bhyam (vas)
Ab.asmátyuṣmát
G.asmā́kam (nas)yuṣmā́kam (vas)
L.asmā́·suyuṣmā́·su

The forms mad, asmad, tvad and yuṣmad can be used in derivation and composition: mát·kṛta, mát·sakhi, tvát·pitṛ, etc.[60]

Demonstratives

Sanskrit does not have true third person pronouns, but its demonstratives play this role when they stand independently of a substantive. The four different demonstratives in Sanskrit[lower-alpha 26] are:

  • tad, adas
  • idam, etad

Both tad and adas are used for objects of reference that are far away, the latter being more emphatic. Both are translated by the English distal demonstrative that.

By contrast, idam and etad are used for nearby objects, and, again, the latter is more emphatic and has a strong deictic meaning. These two pronouns are translated by the English proximal demonstrative this.[61]

The masculine singular nominative form of tad, sas exhibits irregular sandhi behaviour — before consonants saḥ becomes sa, giving, for instance, sa gajaḥ [upper-alpha 46] rather than the expected *so gajaḥ.[62][lower-alpha 27]

etad, is declined almost identically to tad. Its paradigm is obtained by prefixing e- to all the forms of tat. Consequently [lower-alpha 28] the masculine and feminine nominative singular forms of this pronoun are eṣas and eṣā.[65]

The declension of idam is somewhat irregular because it is formed from two different stems, i- and a-.[lower-alpha 29] The nominative and accusative forms, except the three singular nominatives, are regularly formed with the stem im-, and the remaining forms from a-; an extra -n- is infixed should the ending start with a vowel.

Most of the forms for adas are regularly formed using the stem u- the same way as if it were a-, with the combination *ui- becoming ī- in the plural. The nominative dual and instrumental singular are formed like u-stem nouns.[67][68][69]

sing., dual, plu.
Casetad m.n.idam m.n adas m.n tad f idam f adas f
N.sás, tátayám, idám asaú, adás iyám asaú
A.tám, tátimám, idám amúm, adás tā́m imā́m amū́m
I.ténaanéna amúnā táyā anáyā amúyā
D.tásmaiasmaí amúṣmai tásyai asyaí amúṣyai
Ab.tásmātasmā́t amúṣmāt tásyās asyā́s amúṣyās
G.tásyaasyá amúṣya tásyās asyā́s amúṣyās
L.tásminasmín amúṣmin tásyām asyā́m amúṣyām
Casetadidam adas tad idam adas
N.A.Vtaú, téimaú, imé amū́ imé amū́
I.D.Ab.tā́bhyāmābhyā́m amū́bhyām tā́bhyām ā́bhyām amū́bhyām
G.L.táyosanáyos amúyos táyos anáyos amúyos
Casetadidam adas tad idam adas
N.te, tā́niimé, imā́ni amī́, amū́ni tās imā́s amū́s
A.tā́n, tā́niimā́n, imā́ni amū́n, amū́ni tā́s imā́s amū́s
I.taísebhís amī́bhis tā́bhis ābhís amū́bhis
D. Ab.tébhyasebhyás amī́bhyas tā́bhyas ābhyás amū́bhyas
G.téṣāmeṣā́m amī́ṣām tā́sām āsā́m amū́ṣām
L.téṣueṣú amī́ṣu tā́su āsú amū́ṣu

Possessive pronouns

asmad allows the following forms of possessive pronouns:

  • madīya-, māmaka-, māmakīna-
  • asmadīya-, asmāka-, asmākīna-

The feminines are in .

yuṣmad has these:

  • tvadīya-, tāvaka-, tāvakīna-
  • yuṣmadīya-, yauṣmāka-, yauṣmākīṇa-

tad and etad have tadīya- and etadīya- respectively.

The feminines are again in , except the -aka forms where it is -akī. These are all conjugated like regular a-, ā and ī-stem forms.[70][71]

Polite pronoun

Technically a noun, bhavant [lower-alpha 30] literally means 'Your Honour' and is treated like a third-person subject. It carries, however, a second person meaning and connotes politeness. This is declined very much like any vant-stem adjective.

This use of bhavant is common enough to suggest that the word should be treated as a polite variant of the second person pronoun, rather than as a more elaborate honorific construction. Bhavant declines like all stems ending in -ant.

In talking of someone not present, one may use tatrabhavant, and conversely for someone present, atrabhavant, whether being addressed or not.[72]

Enclitic pronouns

The enclitic pronoun enam is found only in a few oblique cases and numbers. It is unemphatic and mostly refers to persons.[73]

Singular Dual Plural
Masc. Neu. Fem. Masc. Neu. Fem. Masc. Neu. Fem.
Accusative enam enat enām enau ene enān enāni enāḥ
Instrumental enena
Genitive/locative enayos

The k-y-t series of interrogative, relative, and correlative pronouns

In Sanskrit, interrogative and relative pronouns are formed analogously to tat. The interrogative pronoun kim is declined like tat, replacing the initial t or s with k. The only exception to this rule is the neuter nominative/accusative singular form, which is kim rather than the expected *kat. The relative pronoun yat is declined like tat, without exception replacing the initial t or s with y.[74]

The demonstrative tat functions as a correlative pronoun when used in "independent clauses that 'complete' relative clauses to form complex sentences"—unlike in English (where one can say, for example, "The girl with whom you were speaking is my sister"), relative pronouns must be accompanied by correlative pronouns (which, if applied to the previous example, would be: "The girl with whom you are speaking, she is my sister").[75]

For a Sanskrit example of a complex sentence using corresponding relative and correlative pronouns, consider: yasmin vane vasati rāmas tasmin vane na vidyante rākṣasāḥ ('In the forest where Rāma lives, there are no demons'). In that example, the pronouns are alike in gender, number, and case, but matching relative–correlative pronouns need not be alike in case—for example: yena puruṣeṇa saha bhāṣate nṛpaḥ sa muniḥ ('The man with whom the king is speaking is a sage').[76]

Indefinite and absolute negative phrases

Aside from their primary uses, the interrogative and relative pronouns are also used to form indefinite phrases. The two ways of forming indefinite phrases are:

  • placing a relative pronoun before its corresponding interrogative pronoun, which in turn is followed by the particle api (for example: yat kim api, which means 'something or another'), and
  • placing one of api, cana, or cit after the interrogative pronoun (for example: kiṃcit, which means 'something').

As is evident in the examples, the first method of indicating indefiniteness is stronger, while the latter is more subtle and can simply be translated by an indefinite article in English. [77]

The absolute negative, semantically functioning as the negation of existential quantification, is formed by negating an indefinite phrase.[78]

Reflexive pronouns

There are a number of words in Sanskrit that function as reflexive pronouns. The indeclinable svayam can indicate reflexivity pertaining to subjects of any person or number, and—since subjects in Sanskrit can appear in the nominative, instrumental, or genitive cases—it can have the sense of any of these cases. The noun ātman ('self') and adjective svaḥ ('own'; cf. Latin suus) decline so as to express reflexivity in any case, person, and number. The former is always in the masculine, even when used in relation to a female subject, but the latter declines for gender.[79]

Pronominal adjectives

Several adjectives in Sanskrit are declined pronominally. That is, their declension differs from ordinary adjectival declension of a-stems and instead follows the declension of tat in certain respects.

  • anya ('other'), anyatara ('either'), itara ('other'), katara ('which of two?'), katama ('which of many?'), and ekatama ('one of many') all follow the tat paradigm exactly.
  • sarva ('every', 'all'), ubhaya ('both'), eka ('one'), and ekatara ('either') follow the tat paradigm except in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -m rather than -t.
  • pūrva ('prior', 'east'), avara ('posterior', 'west'), adhara ('inferior', 'west'), uttara ('subsequent', 'north'), dakṣiṇa ('south'), para ('subsequent', 'other', 'opposite'), apara ('other', 'inferior'), antara ('outer'), and sva ('own') follow the tat paradigm except (1) in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -am rather than -at; (2) in the masculine/neuter ablative and locative singular, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āt and -e rather than -asmāt and -asmin; and (3) in the masculine nominative plural, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āḥ rather than -e.
  • ardha ('half'), alpa ('little'), katipaya ('some'), prathama ('first'), carama ('last'), and dvaya/dvitaya ('twofold') generally follow the regular adjective declension for a-stems but sometimes (though not necessarily) follow tat in the masculine nominative plural, ending in -e rather than -āḥ.
  • dvitīya ('second') and tṛtīya ('third') optionally follow the declension of tat in the forms of the oblique cases in the singular.

Note that when any of these adjectives are at the end of a compound, they decline exactly like ordinary a-stem adjectives.[80]

Nominal derivation

Derivation or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types:[81][82]

  1. Primary derivation – suffixes directly appended to roots[lower-greek 25]
  2. Secondary derivation – suffixes appended to derivative stems[lower-greek 26]
  3. Word-compounding – combining one more word stems

Primary derivatives

The root usually undergoes some change of form first, typically to first-grade, or in some cases second-grade, strengthening. A final -n or -m may sometimes be lost, a short vowel may be first followed by a -t, a final palatal or h may revert to the corresponding guttural, and so on.[83][84]

a-suffix derivatives

A very large number of derivatives are formed under this category, with several semantic outcomes and with varying treatment of the root, including gradation, reduplication and no change.[85]

  1. With guṇa-grading, wherever possible
  2. With vṛddhi-grading, where the final outcome has an ā

ti-suffix derivatives

Another large class, mostly feminine action nouns, with some masculine agent nouns and adjectives. The root remains in zero-grade form, largely like past passive participles in -tá.[86]

man-suffix derivatives

This is another productive category (PIE *-men), mostly of action-noun formations.[87]

tar-suffix derivatives

tṛ- or tar-suffix derivatives, mostly agent nouns (PIE *-tor, English -er).[88]

Several basic kinship nouns are classed under here.

tra-suffix derivatives

Typically nouns expressing the means of doing something.[89]

Secondary derivatives

This is used primarily to form words of adjectival meaning, and with the first vowel usually undergoing vṛddhi-grade strengthening.[90]

a-suffix derivatives

A very productive class, nouns or adjectives that denote a relationship. Patronymics are also derived in this manner.[91]

ya-suffix derivatives

Another very productive class. Closely related are -iya- and -īya- formations.[92]

-iya- is used after a consonant cluster:[93]

tā and tva-suffix derivatives

These suffixes denote the quality of being, analogous to '-ness' and '-hood' in English. Cf Lat -tas (-ty), Slavic *-ьstvo. Coupled with the prefix a- 'un-', the sense of '-lessness' is derived.[94]

Compounds

See also

Notes

  1. also cognate
  2. 'actors'
  3. 'agent'
  4. 'deed'/'object'
  5. 'instrument'
  6. 'bestowal'
  7. lit. 'take off'
  8. 'location'
  9. cognate with Latin 'deus'; 'deity' & 'divine'
  10. accent shift away from ending
  11. the historical form resurfaces in certain environments, e.g., dev·āṅs·ca, seemingly, and misleadingly, as if it were a sandhi rule[25]
  12. cognate with Latin igni-ignition
  13. fem either form
  14. a common feature for i-, u- and ṛ-stem neuters
  15. In the neuter
  16. most kinship nouns take the guṇa form, while agental nouns always take the vṛddhi form
  17. cognate with Lat. socius ⇒ 'social, society', etc.
  18. s-dropping ī-stem only
  19. short end vowel
  20. compare cognates in Slavic *ràjь , Russian рай – 'paradise, heaven', Latin rēs, 'thing'
  21. cognate with Latin nāus
  22. compare Slavic bogъ, bogatъ., 'god', 'wealthy'
  23. cognate with Lat. magno-, Gk. mega-
  24. cognate with Lat. gravis
  25. The series has been carried to great lengths, particularly among the Jains and Buddhists – Burrow
  26. cited in their theoretical form
  27. This phonological irregularity does not carry over to pronouns analogous to tat such as etat, kim, and yat.
  28. as a result of a general sandhi rule requiring the retroflexion of s in certain environments,[63][64]
  29. both of these also form proximal pro-adverbs, for example, atra and iha both mean "here", and atas and itas both mean "in this way"[66]
  30. probably deriving from bhagavant
  31. cf avatāra-
  32. cf Russian времен- vremen-
  33. cf Latin nōmen
  34. cf Russian ка́мень kaḿen
  35. cf Lat. dator
  36. lit. and cognate with im·pecu·nity

Glossary

  1. a god
  2. love
  3. yoke
  4. a fruit
  5. fire
  6. gait
  7. water
  8. enemy
  9. cow
  10. honey, mead
  11. many
  12. pure
  13. giver, donor
  14. father
  15. mother
  16. sister
  17. lit. putter, placer
  18. friend
  19. army
  20. girl
  21. goddess
  22. bride, wed(ded)
  23. wealth
  24. cow
  25. ship
  26. wind, wind-god
  27. three-fold
  28. mind
  29. pouring, oblation
  30. king
  31. self
  32. name
  33. strong
  34. connected with, possessed of, accompanied by
  35. being
  36. eating
  37. pouring, sacrificing
  38. cattle-having, 'pecunious'
  39. god, wealthy
  40. knowing, knowledgeable
  41. having been
  42. great, mega-
  43. stable
  44. heavy
  45. long
  46. that elephant
  47. seize ⇒ seizure
  48. go ⇒ movement
  49. know ⇒ knowledge
  50. cross ⇒ a crossing
  51. emit ⇒ emission
  52. live ⇒ living
  53. flow ⇒ brook
  54. creep ⇒ serpent
  55. endure ⇒ patient
  56. wish ⇒ love
  57. deal/divide ⇒ share
  58. cross ⇒ a crossing
  59. take ⇒ a grab
  60. carry ⇒ carrying
  61. lead ⇒ leading
  62. divide ⇒ division
  63. praise ⇒ a praise
  64. fill ⇒ fulfilment
  65. go ⇒ gait
  66. think ⇒ a thought
  67. see ⇒ sight
  68. speak ⇒ speech/utterance
  69. grow ⇒ growth
  70. do ⇒ deed
  71. hold ⇒ rule
  72. turn ⇒ track
  73. name
  74. worship
  75. worshiper
  76. stone
  77. do ⇒ doer
  78. give ⇒ giver
  79. go ⇒ goer
  80. offer ⇒ sacrificer
  81. protect ⇒ father
  82. mother
  83. brother
  84. milk, suckle ⇒ daughter
  85. drink ⇒ cup
  86. think ⇒ thought
  87. clothe ⇒ clothing
  88. rule ⇒ reign, kingdom
  89. mind ⇒ mental
  90. worship ⇒ priest
  91. Maruts, wind-gods ⇒ of the wind-gods
  92. Manu(s), man ⇒ descendant of Manu
  93. a god ⇒ divine
  94. world ⇒ worldly
  95. male ⇒ manly
  96. cow ⇒ bovine
  97. is, essence ⇒ truth
  98. might ⇒ mighty
  99. offering, worship ⇒ reverend
  100. Indra ⇒ Indran
  101. field ⇒ of the field
  102. deity, divinity
  103. nudity
  104. poverty in cattle, lit. cowlessness
  105. cattlelessness
  106. immortality
  107. brotherhood, fraternity
  108. enmity

Traditional glossary and notes

  1. called sup or sub·anta by Pāṇini
  2. vacana
  3. eka·vacana
  4. dvi·vacana
  5. bahu·vacana
  6. liṅga
  7. puṃ·liṅga
  8. strī·liṅga
  9. napuṃsaka·liṅga
  10. vibhakti
  11. prātipadika – when any declinable has not yet been declined
  12. "su·au·jas am·auṭ·śas ṭā·bʰyām·bʰis ṅe·bʰyām·bʰyas ṅasi·bʰyām·bʰyas ṅas·os·ām ṅi·os·sup" – Pāṇini IV 1.2. [14]
  13. "iko'ci vibʰaktau" – Pāṇini VII 1.73
  14. "nṛ ca" – Pāṇini VI 4.6
  15. aṅga
  16. pada
  17. bha
  18. 'saṃprasāraṇam'
  19. sarva·nāman
  20. vibhakti
  21. vacana
  22. liṅga
  23. uttama·puruṣa
  24. madhyama·puruṣa
  25. kṛt
  26. taddhita

References

  1. Burrow, §4.1.
  2. Fortson, §10.46.
  3. Burrow, §5.2.
  4. Bucknell, p. 11.
  5. Bucknell, p. 12-16.
  6. Whitney, §261–266.
  7. Burrow, §4.2
  8. Fortson, §6.43.
  9. Burrow, §4.3
  10. Fortson, §6.
  11. "CSI: Man3". Chass.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
  12. Scharfe, Hartmut (1977). Grammatical literature. History of Indian literature. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. p. 94. ISBN 978-3447017060.
  13. S.C. Vasu, The Astadhyayi of Pāṇini
  14. Kale, §56
  15. MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.
  16. Whitney, §164–179.
  17. Whitney, §321–322.
  18. Fortson, §10.46.
  19. Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
  20. Whitney, §326–331.
  21. Bucknell, p. 19-22.
  22. MM-W, p. 271, 492, 716,846.
  23. Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
  24. Whitney, §332.
  25. Whitney, §208–209.
  26. Whitney, §335–339.
  27. Bucknell, p. 19-23.
  28. Whitney, §335–342.
  29. Bucknell, p. 19-24.
  30. Whitney, §344.
  31. Whitney, §369–373
  32. Whitney, §343.
  33. Whitney, §347, §362.
  34. Whitney, §362–364.
  35. Burrow, §5.8.
  36. Whitney, §362–364.
  37. Burrow, §5.8.
  38. Whitney, §362.
  39. Kale, §85–86.
  40. Whitney, §360-361.
  41. Whitney, §377–434.
  42. Burrow, §5.
  43. Whitney, §420–440.
  44. Whitney, §443–447.
  45. Whitney, §452–453.
  46. Whitney, §458–461.
  47. Bucknell, p. 22.
  48. Whitney, ch. 5.
  49. Burrow, ch.6.1.
  50. Coulson, p. 178.
  51. Bucknell, p. 106.
  52. Burrow, p. 262.
  53. Coulson, p. 178.
  54. Whitney, §490.
  55. Bucknell, p. 11.
  56. Bucknell, p. 32.
  57. Kale, §132.
  58. Goldman & Goldman, §4.46, pp. 71 – 3.
  59. Whitney, §491.
  60. Whitney, §494.
  61. Coulson, pp. 62–3, 76–7.
  62. Coulson, p. 46
  63. Coulson, pp. 65 – 6.
  64. Goldman & Goldman, §3.58, p. 43.
  65. Coulson, pp. 62 – 3.
  66. Coulson, p. 76.
  67. Whitney, §495–503.
  68. Kale, §135.
  69. Bucknell, tb 13–14.
  70. Whitney, §515
  71. Kale, §146.
  72. Coulson, ch. 9, pp. 116 – 7.
  73. Coulson, p. 151.
  74. Goldman & Goldman, §6.14, p. 103.
  75. Goldman & Goldman, §6.3, pp. 97 – 8.
  76. Goldman & Goldman, §6.15, pp. 103 – 4.
  77. Goldman & Goldman, §§6.17 – 6.19, p. 105.
  78. Goldman & Goldman, §6.20, p. 105.
  79. MacDonell, III.115, p. 79
  80. MacDonell, III.120, pp. 81 – 2.
  81. Whitney, §1138.
  82. Kale, §179, 337.
  83. Whitney, §1143.
  84. Bucknell, pp. 152–206.
  85. Whitney, §1148.
  86. Whitney, §1157.
  87. Whitney, §1168.
  88. Whitney, §1182.
  89. Whitney, §1185.
  90. Whitney, §1202.
  91. Whitney, §1208.
  92. Whitney, §1211.
  93. Whitney, §1214.
  94. Whitney, §1237–1239.

Bibliography

  • Fortson, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8895-1.
  • Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language (2001 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
  • Whitney, William Dwight (January 2008). Sanskrit Grammar (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0620-7.
  • W. D. Whitney, The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)
  • Coulson, Michael. Teach Yourself Sanskrit. Oxford: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986. (ISBN 0-340-32389-2)
  • Coulson, Michael (2003). Sanskrit (2003 ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-340-85990-3.
  • Bucknell, Roderick S (January 2010). Sanskrit Grammar (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1188-1.
  • Kale, M R (1969). A Higher Sanskrit Grammar (2002 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0177-6.
  • Macdonell, A. A. A Sanskrit Grammar for Students. London: Oxford UP, 1927. (ISBN 81-246-0094-5)
  • Delbrück, B. Altindische Tempuslehre (1876)
  • Goldman, Robert P. & Sally J. Devavāṇīpraveśikā. Berkeley: Center for South Asian Studies, 2004. (ISBN 0-944613-40-3)
  • Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.
    • vol. I. phonology Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
    • vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905)
    • vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
    • vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)


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