Siege of Ayutthaya (1766–1767)

In February 1766, the Burmese invading armies laid siege on Ayutthaya with two grand commanders Maha Nawrahta and Nemyo Thihapate encamping in the west and the north of Ayutthaya, respectively;

• Maha Nawrahta, with his Burmese Tavoy column of more than 20,000 men and his subordinate commanders including Nemyo Gonnarat, Mingyi Zeyathu and Mingyi Kamani Sanda, stationed at Siguk about ten kilometers to the west of Ayutthaya.
• Nemyo Thihapate, with his Burmese-Lanna column of 20,000 men, headquartered at Paknam Prasop about seven kilometers to the north of Ayutthaya.

The Siamese inside of Ayutthaya, however, flared quite well during the initial stage of the siege. Food supply was plentiful inside of the city as French missionary observed that "the provisions of the capital were not yet exhausted, the beggars alone suffered from hunger and some died of it". Life went on as usual inside of Ayutthaya citadel. Burmese blockade of Ayutthaya was strong on the western and northern facets of Ayutthaya but was relatively less-manned on the eastern side as it would later be shown that Ayutthaya was still able to communicate with outside through eastern perimeters. No major battles occurred in Ayutthaya during this period.

In September 1766, the Burmese forces, along with grand commanders Maha Nawrahta and Nemyo Thihapate, approached Ayutthaya city walls to encircle the city;

• Western Front: Maha Nawrahta moved from Siguk to Wat Phukhaothong temple, whose pagoda was built by Burmese king Bayinnaung two centuries earlier, with his vanguard at Wat Thakarong temple just 500 meters from Ayutthayan wall.
• Northern Front: Nemyo Thihapate moved from Paknam Prasop down to Phosamton, about five kilometers north of Ayutthaya. Phosamton was a site of Mon refugee community.[15] The Burmese enslaved the local Mon population in Phosamton, took their food supply and marshaled them into Burmese armies.[15]

Burmese armies reached Ayutthayan city walls on 14 September 1766. Ayutthaya sent forces to attack the Burmese at Wat Thakarong to prevent them from encamping but was again defeated. As the Burmese had come within the range of Siamese cannon, the Siamese made an attempt to fire a cannon from the Siamese Satkop fort in the northwestern corner of the city to Burmese riverine fleet at Wat Thakarong to the west. Siamese cannon shot scored a direct hit, killing several men on two Burmese boats but the cannon itself broke and became unusable.[16]

By September 1766, Siamese defenders realized that the Burmese would not leave. Burmese commanders proposed to Maha Nawrahta to move to high grounds. However, Maha Nawrahta stated that Ayutthaya was then like a fish caught in the net.[4] Abandoning the siege would allow Ayutthaya to seek for supplies and reinforcements that would delay Burmese conquest of Ayutthaya. Maha Nawrahta then ordered that;[4]

• Any remaining food supplies and bullocks in the vicinity of Ayutthaya to be seized
• Rice to be cultivated in paddy fields in Ayutthaya suburbs to produce food
• Horses and elephants to be moved to high grounds where they would feed on grasses
• Shelters and supply sheds to be built at shallow, less-inundated areas
• Boats for transportation, some were painted red or gilded, to be constructed

In November 1766, the flooding water surrounding Ayutthaya was at its peak. Both the Burmese and the Siamese could only travel by boats. King Ekkathat sent his two commanders Phraya Phetchaburi Rueang and Phraya Tak to take position at Wat Yai Chaimongkhon temple[16] to the southeast off the city walls with ten thousands of men. Burmese fleet from Bangsai to the south of Ayutthaya approached the city wall. Phraya Phetchaburi and Phraya Tak sailed their fleet to meet the Burmese fleet near Wat Sangkhawat temple about two kilometers to the southeast of the wall, leading to the Battle of Wat Sangkhawat in November 1766. A fierce battle ensued as both the Burmese and the Siamese jumped onto each other's boat to engage in hand-to-hand combats. Phraya Phetchaburi approached the Burmese as the vanguard but he was soon surrounded by twenty Burmese boats.[4] The Burmese threw a gunpower keg at Phraya Phetchaburi's boat. The explosion killed many Siamese men but Phraya Phetchaburi survived. A Burmese gunman named Nga San Tun rowed his boat to capture Phraya Phetchaburi. Phraya Phetchaburi jumped onto Nga San Tun's boat, preparing to slash the Burmese gunmen with his sword. Nga San Tun took quick action by hitting Phraya Phetchaburi with a ramrod.[2][4] Thai chronicles stated that Phraya Phetchaburi was brought down dead by a musket shot but Burmese chronicles said otherwise that Phraya Phetchaburi, known as Bra Than, was captured alive. With their leader supposedly dead, the Siamese panicked and retreated. Phraya Tak, however, was idle for most of the battle and did not engage to rescue his comrade Phraya Phetchaburi.[16]

The Burmese prevailed and capture ten thousands of Siamese captives. General Maha Nawrahta generously provided the Siamese captives with food and shelter and encouraged those Siamese who had fled into hiding in the jungles to peacefully return.[2] Thai sources, however, portrayed that the Burmese violently pursued Siamese war refugees to capture them. Surrendered Siamese men were made to swear loyalty to Burma and enter Burmese military service, adding even more men to Burmese ranks. After his defeat, Phraya Tak chose not to return to Ayutthaya citadel and instead stationed his troops at Wat Phichaisongkhram temple off the eastern wall across the city moat.

Nemyo Thihapate had taken his position at Phosamton to the north of Ayutthaya. Phosamton was a site of Mon refugee community in Siam.[15] During this Burmese invasion, the local Mon population were recruited into the service of the Burmese.[17] A number of Mon refugees in Siam collaborated with the Burmese invaders as the Mons served as translators between the Burmese and the Siamese. In November 1766, ten days after Siamese defeat at Wat Sangkhawat, King Ekkathat sent another force to attack Nemyo Thihapate to the north. Upon learning of Siamese advance, Nemyo Thihapate arranged his defensive positions. Two regiments with 5,000 men each were placed on both banks of Lopburi river at Uyin village (believed to be Phosamton),[2] waiting to ambush. Nemyo Thihapate sent another 10,000 men to lure the Siamese fleet into his trap.

Siamese fleet, with ten thousands of men, left Ayutthaya and proceeded to the north, meeting with the Burmese decoy fleet at Phaniat only a kilometer to the north of Ayutthaya where the elephant khedda stood. The Burmese vanguard then feigned retreat, luring the Siamese into Phosamton. Unaware of the ambush plan, Siamese fleet sailed directly into the Burmese trap. The Siamese fleet was annihilated by the ambush of Burmese forces from both river banks at the set up point with the Burmese capturing a large number of Siamese men.[4]

By November 1766, after two devastating defeats at Wat Sangkhawat and Phosamton, according to Burmese chronicles, both Siamese court and populace trembled in fear and anxiety[2][4] as they realized their situation had become dire. The Siamese decided to permanently shut the Ayutthaya city gates by completely sealing the gates with bricks, with only way to pass through was to climb across the wall using ropes.

In December 1766, when the flooding water of Ayutthayan outskirts began to recede, Ayutthaya made another attempt to dislodge the Burmese in the west and the north by sending two armies, each with ten thousands of men;

• Phraya Tak was sent to attack Maha Nawrahta's contingent at Wat Thakarong to the northwest of Ayutthaya.
• Phraya Phra Narit was sent to attack Nemyo Thihapate at Phosamton.

Both Maha Nawrahta and Nemyo Thihapate mustered their forces of 12,000 men, 120 elephants and 1,200 horses to deal with Siamese offensives. The Burmese eventually prevailed as before. At any rate, the Siamese attempts to break the siege were unsuccessful.

By December 1766, Siamese manpower had depleted and Ayutthaya could only send some thousands of men into battlefields. Ayutthaya also began to enlist foreigners to fight the Burmese. King Ekkathat put out another Siamese attempt to repel the Burmese by placing a regiment of 2,000 men at Wat Chaiwatthanaram temple to the southwest of Ayutthaya and other 2,000 Chinese men under leadership of Luang Aphaiphiphat the Chinese headman at Khlong Suan Phlu[18] to the southeast of Ayutthaya. Aphaiphiphat barricaded his Chinese contingent at the abandoned Dutch trade factory, as the Dutch had earlier abandoned their factory in the face of Burmese invasion in October 1765, leaving a large number of trade cargo.[3]

According to Thai chronicles, Mangchai the Lanna ruler of Phrae, who was leading his Lanna Phrae regiment under command of Nemyo Thihapate, mutinied against the Burmese and left the battlefield with his men eastward to the Wat Phra Phutthabat temple in Saraburi. Mangchai sent a letter of Phraya Yommaraj the Siamese commander, saying that he did not want to serve Burma anymore. The Burmese chased after the Lanna defectors to Saraburi, meeting them at Wat Phra Phutthabat and the battle ensued.[19]

Phraya Tak was a Siamese nobleman of Teochew Chinese immigrant background with personal name Zheng Xin (鄭新). By the end of 1766, situation had become desperate for the Siamese. The Siamese had depleted their food and manpower as resistances against the Burmese invaders became increasingly futile. A large number of desperate Ayutthayan people surrendered to the besieging Burmese, who promised them fair treatment. According to popular belief, Phraya Tak was put in a judicial trial for his unauthorized cannon shot. Phraya Tak was also blamed for the fall of his fellow commander[20] Phraya Phetchaburi in the battle of Wat Sangkhawat in November 1766. These events disheartened Phraya Tak, who became convinced that the fall of Ayutthaya was inevitable. After his defeat at Wat Sangkhawat, Phraya Tak did not return to Ayutthaya citadel but rather stationed his troops at Wat Phichaisongkhram temple to the east of Ayutthaya.

Burmese actions on eastern facet of Ayutthaya was less intensive than other sides. At the end of 1766, Phraya Tak gathered his Chinese-Siamese followers of 500 men[21] at Wat Phichaisongkhram temple. On 4 January 1767, Phraya Tak and his followers broke through relatively less-manned Burmese encirclement to the east to seek for new position in Eastern Siam. On that same night, a great fire broke out inside of Ayutthaya citadel, consuming about 10,000 houses.

During the Burmese invasion of Siam in 1765–1767, Burma also faced incoming war from another front – Qing China (see Sino-Burmese War). In 1765, the Burmese forces from the Shan State of Kengtung invaded Tai Lue Sipsongpanna, which had been under Chinese suzerainty.[22] Liu Zao (劉藻) the viceroy of Yungui committed the Qing Green Banner Army to attack Kengtung in 1765, which was repelled by the Burmese commander Nemyo Sithu. The disgraced viceroy Liu Zao committed suicide. Yang Yingju (楊應琚), the new viceroy of Yungui, initiated a new war with Burma. Yang Yingju attacked and occupied Kengtung in May 1766. Yang Yingju sent Chinese armies through the Tiebi Pass (鐵壁) in October 1766 to directly attack the Burmese heartlands in the Irrawaddy valley. The Chinese invaders attacked and occupied the Shan state of Bhamo but Balamindin took defensive position in his stockade at Kaungton to the south of Bhamo. The Chinese suffered from tropical climate and malaria disease. Balamindin held the Chinese out until December 1766 when the Burmese general Nemyo Sithu expelled the Chinese from Bhamo. The Chinese retreated and was followed by the Burmese into their own territories.

Burma then faced war on two fronts; China and Siam. The Burmese court began to consider finishing up the Siamese war in order to shift the military activities away to the Chinese front. King Hsinbyushin gave orders in January 1767 urging the Burmese commanders to finish the conquest of Siam. Maha Nawrahta then stated that Ayutthaya, in spite of many defeats, still persisted so efforts should be escalated in order to finish the conquest of Ayutthaya, Maha Nawrahta also proposed the tactics of digging an underground tunnel into Ayutthaya, taking the model from Theravadin Mahosadha Jataka, in which Mahosadha dug a tunnel into the city of Pancala to take the family members of Culani the king of Pancala, including his beautiful daughter Pancala Candi,[4] into hostages. Nemyo Thihapate moved from Phosamton to Phaniat, where the elephant khedda stood, just at the northern wall of Ayutthaya. Nemyo Thihapate burnt down the Siamese Kotcha Pravet royal palace at Phaniat and constructed a tower there. The Burmese dismantled bricks from many Siamese temples in Ayutthaya suburbs to construct twenty-seven[2] battle towers surrounding Ayutthaya with the height of seven taung (approximately three meters, see Myanmar units of measurement) and the circumferences ranging from 150 tas to 300 tas. Burmese towers allowed them to lift cannons to fire onto Ayutthaya, inflicting damages to the city.

Siamese court had enlisted the local Chinese and the Portuguese to defend the city. The Portuguese community at Ban Portuket, about 1.5 kilometer downstream to the south of Ayutthaya, had been left isolated since November 1766 when the Burmese closed in. On 13 November 1766, the Burmese attacked Saint Joseph Church but was repelled by Catholic defenders. "They sabred a crowd of Burmese who had attempted to storm college."[23]

By February 1767, the Chinese stockade at Khlong Suan Phlu and the Portuguese camps at Ban Portuket were the main Siamese defense line to the south. The Chinese at Khlong Suan Phlu sailed their junk fleet against Burmese towers to the south along the Chao Phraya River, coming between the towers of Mingyi Zeyathu and Nanda Udein Kyawdin, leading to the Battle of Khlong Suan Phlu. However, the Burmese had laid an iron chain across the river to prevent the passage. Chinese–Siamese war-junks were halted by the iron chains and those large ships crowded on the point. The two Burmese commanders then poured cannon fires from their towers onto the stuck Chinese–Siamese fleet, destroying and annihilating the fleet. Burmese forces from nearby towers arrived to finish the battle. Many Chinese and Siamese were killed and drowned in this battle.[4]

Situation inside of the Ayutthaya citadel was at the worst. Starving people died or left. Robbery and chaos dominated the once-prosperous Siamese royal capital. In February 1767, the Siamese took out an old cannon named Dvaravati,[12] which was believed to be spiritual guardian of the Ayutthaya city, to be employed at the front to fire at Nemyo Thihapate's position to the north. However, the Dvaravati cannon failed miserably to function, partly due to lack of experience of Siamese cannoneers. The first shot fell short on the city moat, not reaching the target. Second shot went too far, missing the target. Ayutthaya defenders then interpreted this as an omen suggesting that the guardian spirits of Ayutthaya did not even comply in the defense of the city,[12] while Burmese cannons, stationed on high battle towers, effectively inflicted fires onto Ayutthaya, destroying buildings and killing people. King Ekkathat and the Siamese court then resolved to seek for peace. Phraya Kalahom the Minister of Military was sent out to meet Maha Nawrahta on the western outskirts. Burmese chronicles stated that Siam offered to send tributes but was denied by the Burmese leading commanders who demanded total and unconditional surrender.[2][4] The Burmese–Siamese peace negotiation attempt apparently failed.

Five days after the negotiation, Maha Nawrahta the supreme commander of the Burmese Tavoy column died from illness. Maha Nawrahta was believed to be cremated and his remains was interred at Wat Siguk temple to the west of Ayutthaya. According to Thai chronicles, the Burmese commanders of the Tavoy column initially voted to elect Mingyi Kamani Sanda as their new commander but Nemyo Thihapate exerted his command over Maha Nawrahta's armies. Thihapate reported the death of Maha Nawrahta to the Burmese king Hsinbyushin at Ava and asked to assume the commands of all besieging Burmese armies in Ayutthaya. Hsinbyushin, however, appointed Minye Minhla Uzana the governor of Martaban to replace Maha Nawrahta instead. This new regiment left Ava on 18 February 1767 (5th waning of Tabodwe 1128 ME).[4] It took a considerable time for Minye Minhla Uzana to lead his armies to Ayutthaya so Nemyo Thihapate became de facto supreme commander of all the Burmese in Ayutthaya. According to Prince Damrong, the death of Maha Nawrahta was detrimental to the Siamese as it allowed the Burmese forces to be united under one single command of Nemyo Thihapate.

Saint Joseph Church on southern side of Ayutthaya, founded in 1662 by French missionaries, was destroyed by the Burmese in March 1767. It was rebuilt in 1831 and transformed into modern Neo-Romanesque architecture in 1883.

By March 1766, there were four main Siamese defense points on the southern front;

• The Siamese regiment at Wat Chai Watthanaram temple to the southwest of Ayutthaya
• Catholic encampment at Saint Joseph Church on the southern moat, under leadership of Pierre Brigot the French bishop
• Portuguese resistance at Ban Portuket the Portuguese community to the southeast of Ayutthaya
• Chinese encampment at Khlong Suan Phlu the Teochew Chinese community to the southeast of Ayutthaya, including the abandoned Dutch trade factory

Satpagyon Bo the Burmese commander led his 500 men to attack the Siamese at Wat Chai Watthanaram, who fell after nine days of resistance. Another Burmese commander Uttama Thinka Kyaw led his 500 men to attack the Chinese camps at the old Dutch factory. Both the Chinese and the Portuguese shared their manpower along the defense line and combined their forces to resist the Burmese but to no avail. After resisting for about a month,[18] the Chinese camps fell in mid-March 1767. The Portuguese camp of Ban Portuket also fell on March 21. The Burmese held Catholic priests as hostages, demanding the surrender of Pierre Brigot the apostolic vicar at Saint Joseph seminary, promising not to destroy Christian churches. Brigot gave himself in to the Burmese, who did not keep their promises and burnt down all churches; Saint Dominic, San Paolo and Saint Joseph churches on 23 March 1767. The last Siamese defense line on the southern front eventually collapsed.

In late March 1767, Nemyo Thihapate chose the northeastern corner of Ayutthaya at Huaraw as where he would dig the tunnel to penetrate into Ayutthaya. Thihapate ordered the construction of three forts at Huaraw, each with the circumference of 800 tas and the height of ten taung (about 4.5 meters).[4] Each of the Burmese commanders; Satpagyon Bo, Thitsein Bo and Thado Mindin, each with 2,000 men, was assigned to each fort. The three forts were to supervise and to guard the tunnel digging into Ayutthaya. The Burmese dug five tunnels to reach the underlying root of Ayutthaya walls. Chameun Si Sorrarak[2] called Bra Mundari in Burmese chronicles), who was a brother of Ekkathat's favorite concubine, volunteered to take out the Burmese. The Siamese forces of ten thousands men descended onto the three Burmese forts like a swarm of bees.[4] The Battle of Huaraw was intense as Siamese soldiers stepped on dead bodies of their comrades to climb their portable ladders into the forts.[4] A large number of Siamese managed to enter the forts, which nearly capitulated to the Siamese. However, Burmese reinforcements arrived in time just to repel the Siamese. 800 Siamese men died in this battle, while another 200 were captured and Chameun Si Sorrarak himself returning to Ayutthaya citadel.

Thai chronicles described supernatural events before the eventual Fall of Ayutthaya in April 1767 including Buddha statues crying and splitting.[16] The Burmese put the wood logs into the tunnel to set fire on the base of the northeastern section of Ayutthayan wall at Huaraw. On 7 April 1767, at around 3 pm in the afternoon, the Burmese began to set fire at the roots of the wall. At 8 pm, the burnt wall at Huaraw collapsed. Nemyo Thihapate simultaneously had his regiments breach into the Ayutthaya citadel. The Burmese put their ladders onto Siamese wall on every sides. The Burmese entered Ayutthaya citadel through the tunnels and through the ladders. Remaining Siamese forces of 10,000 men inside of the citadel, under the commands of Chaophraya Phrakhlang and Phraya Kalahom, continued to resist in their last stand.[2] The Burmese employed the scorched earth tactics on the fallen Ayutthaya city. Burmese conquerors indiscriminately slaugtered Ayutthaya citizens, plundered for wealth and burnt down all buildings including palaces and temples. The fire ravaged Ayutthaya as bright as daytime. Burmese and Thai chronicles gave different accounts on the death of Ekkathat, the last king of Ayutthaya;

• Burmese chronicles stated that Ekkathat fled from his palace to in western city gate but was killed by a random gunshot there during the commotion.[4]
• Thai chronicles stated that Ekkathat fled from Ayutthaya city to Wat Sangkhawat on the southern side of the city wall where he died from starvation a week later.

The Burmese captured Siamese royal members including Ekkathat's siblings, children and other relatives. The Burmese also captured Siamese nobility including high-ranking ministers Chaophraya Phrakhlang the Prime Minister, Phraya Yommaraj and Phraya Phollathep. Total number of 2,000 Siamese elite people were captured and deported.[1] Siamese wealth including precious gems and metals, elephants, horses, Buddhist scriptures and academic treatises were also taken by the conquerors.[4] Phra Si Sanphet Buddha image, which stood about sixteen meters tall, cast in 1500 AD and had been the palladium of Ayutthaya kingdom for centuries, was destroyed and molten down by the Burmese. 30,000 remaining Ayutthayan survivors were forcibly relocated to the Burmese capital in Ava. The Burmese also found a huge number of unused firearms including 10,000 flintlock guns, 3,550 small cannons, two large cannons and 50,000 cannon shells.[4] It was then decided that, due to large number of the firearms, the Burmese would only take those with fine qualities and destroy the rest. Siamese firearms and cannons that were not taken were either put to explosion or dumped into the water.