Transfer (association football)

The concept of a football transfer first came into existence in England after The Football Association (FA) introduced player registration sometime after 1885. Before that, a player could agree to play one or more matches for any football club. After the FA recognised professionalism in 1885,[4] it sought to control professional players by introducing a player registration system. Players had to register with a club each season, even if he remained with the same club as in the season before. A player was not allowed to play until he was registered for that season. Once a player was registered with a club he was not allowed to be registered with or play for another club during the same season without the permission of the FA and the club that held his registration. However players were free to join another club before the start of each season, even if their former club wished to retain them.

Sometime after the Football League was formed in 1888 the Football League decided to introduce the retain-and-transfer system, which restricted clubs from luring players from other clubs, thereby preventing clubs from losing their players and preventing the league from being dominated by a handful of rich clubs. From the start of the 1893–94 season onwards, once a player was registered with a Football League club, he could not be registered with any other club, even in subsequent seasons, without the permission of the club he was registered with. It applied even if the player's annual contract with the club holding their registration was not renewed after it expired. The club was not obliged to play them and, without a contract, the player was not entitled to receive a salary. Nevertheless, if the club refused to release his registration, the player could not play for any other Football League club. Football League clubs soon began to demand and earn a transfer fee from any other Football League club as consideration for agreeing to release or transfer the player's registration.

In 1912 Charles Sutcliffe helped establish the legality of this retain-and-transfer system when he successfully represented his club Aston Villa during the Kingaby case.[5] The former Villa player Herbert Kingaby had brought legal proceedings against the club for preventing him from playing. However an erroneous strategy pursued by Kingaby's counsel resulted in the suit being dismissed.[6] In England, the "retain" aspect of the system was removed after a decision by the High Court in 1963 in Eastham v Newcastle United that it was unreasonable.

In 1996, Dutchman Edgar Davids was the first high-profile player to move on a free transfer via the Bosman ruling.

The transfer system remained unchanged until the Bosman ruling. The ruling is named after Jean-Marc Bosman, a former Belgian footballer who in 1990 was registered with Belgian Cup winners RFC Liège.[7] His contract had expired and he was looking to move to French team Dunkerque, but Dunkerque refused to pay the transfer fee of £500,000 that Liège were asking for.[7] Bosman was left in limbo and his wages were cut by 75% due to him not playing.[7] After a lengthy legal battle, Bosman won his case on 15 December 1995 when the European Court of Justice ruled players should legally be free to move when their contract expired.[8]

The first high-profile "Bosman transfer" was Edgar Davids,[9] who departed Ajax for Milan, but lasted just one year in Milan before moving to league rivals Juventus for a fee of over £5 million. The same summer, Luis Enrique made the controversial decision to let his Real Madrid contract run down by signing for league rivals Barcelona.[10] In 1999, Steve McManaman departed his boyhood club Liverpool for Real Madrid,[11] while Sol Campbell was arguably the most controversial Bosman transfer of all-time when in 2001, he moved from Tottenham Hotspur to local fierce rivals Arsenal.[12][13] In 2011, playmaker Andrea Pirlo notably completed his contract with A.C. Milan before moving to Juventus. In 2014, it was announced Borussia Dortmund striker Robert Lewandowski would leave the club for league rivals Bayern Munich in the upcoming summer when his contract expired.[14][15][16]

Another impact the case had was the rules regarding foreign players. Before the ruling was made, clubs throughout Europe were limited to the number of foreign players they could employ, and could only play a maximum of three in European competition.[18] FIFA noted it was "disappointed" in the ruling,[19] while Gordon Taylor thought the decision would have a major impact and would "lead to a flood of foreign players... to the detriment of our game".[18] The ruling ensured a team could now choose to play a team of 11 foreign players if it wanted,[8] as was the case when Chelsea became the first team to do so in December 1999.[20] By 2007, the percentage of foreign players in England and Germany had reached 57%, compared with 39% in Spain and France and 30% in Italy.[21] The last team to field an all-English starting line-up was Aston Villa in February 1999, nine months before the first all-foreign squad fielded by a club team in a football match.[22]

Although there were leagues already implementing the practice, UEFA decided to enforce a continental transfer window in time for the 2002–03 season.[23] UEFA chief executive Gerhard Aigner said that part of the reason behind making the transfer window compulsory was to ensure a partial stabilisation of club squads during the season[24] and to "stop the confusion that has followed Bosman",[25] and, with regards to it possibly damaging smaller clubs financially, he said it did not make sense that clubs would "depend on the transfer of a single player to survive the season".[26] From 2002 to the present day, most leagues around Europe have two windows in which players may be purchased: the end of the season to 31 August, and then for the entirety of the month of January.[27] In England, the club chairmen felt they were "reluctantly being forced" to accept the proposal,[28] and FIFA eventually relaxed the rules regarding out-of-contract players, which enabled them to sign a contract with a new club at any time, thus not depriving football players of income outside of the season’s transfer window.[29]

In 2003, the English Premier League scrapped a law which forbade loans between clubs in the league.[30] Professional Footballers' Association chairman Gordon Taylor was critical of the change, fearing the new system would "erode the sporting and competitive element of the game".[31] In February 2004, Newcastle United allowed striker Lomana LuaLua to move on loan to fellow Premier League club Portsmouth for three months for a £100,000 fee.[32] On 29 February, LuaLua scored an 89th-minute equaliser against Newcastle in a 1–1 draw,[33] later apologizing to Newcastle supporters.[34] The law was again changed to block players from playing against their parent club, a move which Graham Taylor was critical of.[35] Long-time Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger has been critical of the rule on numerous occasions. In 2012, he asked for the rules to be changed so that only players aged 21 and under can be loaned;[36] in 2013, he said the rule lacks "integrity";[37] and in 2014, said the system was "not defendable" and protects the clubs who loan players out.[38] In 2013, Football League clubs voted unanimously to close a "ludicrous" loophole which had allowed Watford to loan 14 players from abroad, including ten from Udinese.[39][40]

On transfer deadline day in August 2006, West Ham United pulled off what was described as a "major coup" by signing Argentina World Cup stars Carlos Tevez and Javier Mascherano from Corinthians.[41][42] West Ham's official press release stated Tevez and Mascherano had "been signed for an undisclosed fee and put pen to paper on permanent contracts", but that "all other aspects of the transfers will remain confidential and undisclosed".[43] Mystery shrouded the transfer immediately with regards to who owned the rights to the players,[44] and continued until three years later when Tevez signed for Manchester United.[45][46][47] In March 2007, West Ham were charged over the transfers, with the Premier League claiming the club had breached two regulations, U6 and U18, which state respectively, "No person may either directly or indirectly be involved in or have any power to determine or influence the management or administration of more than one club," and, "No club shall enter into a contract which enables any other party to that contract to require the ability materially to influence its policies or the performance of its teams in league matches."[48] West Ham escaped a points deduction,[49] but were given a record fine of £5.5 million by the Premier League.[50][51] Tevez was also cleared to carry on playing for the club,[52] and he scored the goal on the final matchday of the season, which kept West Ham in the Premier League.[53][54] Sheffield United, who were relegated from the Premier League at the end of the season,[55] sued West Ham and eventually received a settlement of approximately £20 million.[56][57][58]

Mascherano agreed to leave West Ham to join Liverpool on loan in January 2007, but had to wait for the Premier League to ratify the transfer due to the previous controversy,[59] and the transfer was cleared three weeks later.[60][61] On 29 February 2008, Liverpool signed Mascherano on a four-year contract, with a fee of £18 million paid to agent Kia Joorabchian.[62][63] After Joorabchian had paid £2 million to West Ham, Tevez departed for Manchester United at the end of the season on a two-year loan, with United paying £5 million per year.[64][65][66] After the loan ended, Tevez transferred to United's rivals Manchester City for a reported fee of £47 million.[67]

In 2008, the Premier League banned third-party ownership in England,[68] and in 2012, then-UEFA president Michel Platini released a statement in which plans to ban third-party ownership were revealed, stating that "the committee decided that the ownership of football players by third parties should be prohibited as a matter of principle",[69] while then UEFA general secretary Gianni Infantino said, "Third-party ownership of players bears many threats and there are many issues linked with the integrity of the competition and it is really time to regulate that and to have a stance on that."[70] In 2014, Platini again called for the practice to end: "If FIFA fails to act, we will address this issue in our own competitions in Europe. The UEFA Executive Committee has already adopted a position on this issue in principle, and we will see this through," also adding it is a "danger to our sport" and "threatens the integrity of our competitions, damages football's image, poses a long-term threat to clubs' finances and even raises questions about human dignity".[71] He was backed by FIFPro, the worldwide representative organisation for 65,000 professional football players, who stated the rights of the players were "under attack".[72] In September 2014, it was announced by then-FIFA president Sepp Blatter that third-party ownership was to be banned completely following an indeterminate transitional period.[73][74]

In April 2006, Hearts player Andy Webster was placed on the transfer list by the club after Webster's agent attempted to engineer a move to Rangers.[75][76] In late June, Romanov confirmed that Webster, as well as teammate Rudi Skácel, were in talks to agree a move to Southampton.[77] Days later, Romanov reported the pair to FIFA after the players failed to turn up at the airport to fly to Austria for pre-season training.[78] Later in the month, Webster invoked a new ruling in the FIFA laws which allowed players to free themselves from their contract and join a club in another country, providing they were in the third year of a four-year contract and gave his current club due notice, and was set to sign for Wigan Athletic.[79] In September, the transfer was finally ratified by FIFA.[80] despite a late attempt by Hearts to re-sign Webster.[81] However, after playing just five matches for Wigan, he moved to Rangers on loan in January 2007[82] and was given permission to play following a complaint by Hearts.[83] In May 2007, the tribunal to decide the compensation due to Hearts took place, with Hearts seeking up to £5 million,[84][85] but were eventually rewarded just £625,000.[86][87] Scottish Professional Footballers' Association Fraser Wishart described the ruling as a "landmark".[88] In January 2008, after an appeal, the compensation fee was reduced to £150,000 by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS).[89] In 2007, Matuzalém invoked the same clause as Webster to break out of his contract with Shakhtar Donetsk, signing for Real Zaragoza.[90] Matuzalém was found to be in breach of contract, and he and Zaragoza were ordered to pay £11 million in compensation to Shakhtar.[91][92]

Neymar's transfer to Barcelona in 2013 became the subject of investigation.

In August 2010, Brazilian team Santos' 18-year-old homegrown striker Neymar was the subject of a bid in the region of £25 million from English team Chelsea,[93] before he signed a new five-year contract.[94][95] In June 2011, Neymar was again the subject of a high-profile transfer bids: Chelsea and Real Madrid were both reported as preparing offers of €45 million,[96][97] before Neymar eventually turned them down to sign another new contract with Santos.[98] In December 2011, ahead of the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup Final, it was reported that Barcelona had paid Santos a €10 million instalment for the guaranteed future transfer of Neymar at any point until 2014.[99] A similar figure of €14 million was reported in March by Spanish radio station Cadena SER, which also reported a total transfer fee of €58 million had already been agreed between the two clubs.[100] Neymar's father was quoted as saying Barcelona was a "great option" for his son.[101] A year later, his father again spoke of a possible transfer for his son, saying he would leave Santos after the 2014 FIFA World Cup, taking place in Brazil, and that Barcelona was the "best path".[102] The manager of the Brazil national team at the time, Mano Menezes, thought a move to Europe before the World Cup would be the best way for Neymar to develop as a player ahead of the tournament,[103] while Neymar himself said, "I'm saying once and for all that I'm not leaving Santos right now."[104]

On 25 May 2013, Barcelona announced they had agreed a deal with Santos to sign Neymar,[105] who himself released a statement shortly afterwards, saying, "I am not going to wait until Monday. My family and friends now know my decision. On Monday I will sign with Barcelona."[106] The transfer was confirmed on 3 June, with Neymar signing a five-year contract with Barcelona for a fee reported as £48.6 million,[107][108][109] a fee later confirmed by Barcelona vice-president Josep Maria Bartomeu.[110] Shortly after the transfer was confirmed, DIS Esporte executive director Roberto Moreno revealed that DIS had not been paid a proportionate amount that equalled their 40% stake in the player; the investors of DIS had been paid only €9.7 million, which Moreno said meant the transfer fee Santos received was just €17 million.[111][112] Moreno threatened legal action to those privy to the inside knowledge of the transfer deal, saying, "I am going to wait one more week and then I will open a case in court to get access to the information."[113] The legal action was pursued, forcing Santos to produce a document as evidence in which they claimed, "As Santos FC well knows, the total transfer fee for all the federative and economic rights of Neymar Jr was established at €17.1M as stated in the transfer contract signed by both clubs," and they denied any wrongdoing with regards to payments to third parties, stating, "Such amounts... will be shared among Santos FC, TEISA and DIS in the amounts contractually agreed between these entities."[114] Barcelona also paid Santos a fee of €7.9 million for "preferential rights" for three other Santos players, which Bartomeu claimed was not part of the transfer fee.[115]

In December, Barcelona club member Jordi Cases took the case to court in an attempt to prove "misappropriation of funds", claiming the total fee Barcelona paid was actually €74 million.[116][117] In January, Barcelona released a statement in which they denied any wrongdoing, citing they had disclosed the €40 million payment to Neymar's parents from the beginning.[118][119] On 22 January, it was announced that judge Pablo Ruz would gather information as part of a lawsuit against Barcelona president Sandro Rosell.[120][121] Rosell resigned from his position as president the next day,[122][123][124] and a day later, the details of the transfer were revealed by Barcelona; the transfer had in fact cost them a total of €57.1 million (£48.6M),[125][126][127] with Neymar's parents confirmed to have received a €40 million sum.[128][129]

On 20 February, Barcelona and Bartomeu were charged with tax fraud,[130][131] and paid a "voluntary" amount of €13.6 million in the same week in an attempt to save the image of the club.[132][133] Barcelona continued to defend their actions, releasing a statement stating that the club's "dealings with respect to this operation, and in light of all information available, was at all times in line with the relevant legal legislation",[134] while Neymar defended his father's rights to the money he received as part of the deal.[135] Bartomeu, who had been appointed club president following Rosell's resignation, reiterated the belief of himself and the club that the deal was fair and praised the transparency of the club to reveal all the details.[136] The tax charges which had been brought against Bartomeu were dropped in September.[137]

In 2013, FIFPro launched a legal challenge against the transfer system.[138][139][140][141] FIFPro president Phillipe Piat said that "the transfer system fails 99% of players around the world, it fails football as an industry and it fails the world's most beloved game". According to FIFPro's European president Bobby Barnes, 28% of the money from a transfer fee is paid to agents,[139] and that many players are not paid on time or at all.[139][140] He claims this leads to these players being "vulnerable targets of crime syndicates, who instigate match-fixing and threaten the very existence of credible football competitions".[138] Writing for the BBC, Matt Slater said that "professional footballers do not enjoy the same freedoms that almost every other EU worker does",[141] and that "players look at US sport, and wonder why their career prospects are still constrained by transfer fees and compensation costs". Barnes argues that "the system encourages speculative, unsustainable, immoral and illegal investment models like third-party ownership of players".[140]

In 2017, FIFPro agreed to drop the legal challenge after they came to an understanding with FIFA, signing a six-year agreement to improve governance of transfers and conduct a review of the current system.[142] Under the new terms, players who are unpaid by their parent club, mistreated or subject to abusive behaviour, are free to break their contract and leave.[143][144]

In May 2014, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) announced it would be ending co-ownership of players to bring Serie A in line with the other European leagues.[145][146]

One of the earliest, and most high profile, example of a transfer being cancelled due to medical issues in the UK was in November 1971 when Asa Hartford's transfer to Leeds United from West Bromwich Albion collapsed. Amidst a high level of publicity, the two clubs had agreed a fee of £177,000, a then record for Leeds United; but a medical examination found Hartford had a pin-sized hole in his heart, a slight defect he had been born with but had never impacted the progression of his career. On the advice of their medical staff, Leeds United cancelled the transfer. Despite this, Hartford went on to have a long successful playing career, including appearing for Scotland in the 1978 and 1982 World Cups, with his minor heart defect never causing an issue.[156][157]

In the summer of 2000, Ruud van Nistelrooy looked set to complete a club record £18.5 million transfer to Manchester United from PSV.[158] Van Nistelrooy was to be unveiled at a press conference four days later, but instead this was used to announce the transfer had been postponed over concerns about his fitness; he had not played for a month due to problems with his knee.[159] The transfer was then cancelled after PSV would not agree to further medical tests,[160][161] and the next day, he ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in his knee during a training session, leaving him injured for a year.[162][163] One year later, Van Nistelrooy signed a five-year contract after passing his medical.[164]

John Hartson failed medical tests which led to the shelving of three potential transfers in 2000.

Throughout 2000, Wimbledon striker John Hartson's proposed multimillion-pound moves to Tottenham Hotspur,[165] Rangers[166] and Charlton Athletic[167] all fell through after he failed medicals at each club. In February 2001, Hartson finally transferred to Coventry City.[168]

In July 2003, Gabriel Milito's transfer to Real Madrid from Independiente was cancelled after the medical examination by the Spanish club. Real Madrid doctors said Milito's knees would suffer severe injuries in the incoming years.[169] Milito then signed with Real Zaragoza, becoming one of the most successful defenders in La Liga. In the incoming season, Zaragoza went to win the Copa del Rey final against Real Madrid. In 2007, he joined Real Madrid's rivals, Barcelona, but at the end of his first season he suffered a knee injury that ruled him out for two years.[170]

In 2008, Lilian Thuram agreed to sign for Paris Saint-Germain on a free transfer from Barcelona.[171] During his medical, it was discovered he had a severe heart defect which had also ended his brother's life,[172][173] forcing Thuram to retire.[174][175]

In 2009, Milan were set to sign Aly Cissokho from Porto[176] when a medical revealed he had a dental problem which could cause deterioration in posture and potential muscle problems, prompting Milan to cancel the transfer.[177][178][179] Cissokho eventually transferred to Lyon one month later.[180]

On transfer deadline in January 2013, Nottingham Forest were attempting to sign George Boyd from Peterborough United when it collapsed due to an inconclusive eye test.[181] Boyd later signed for Hull City in February,[182] and subsequently scored against Forest in a fixture in March and mocked them with a celebration whereby he used his fingers to make fake glasses.[183] A permanent transfer was arranged in May.[184]

Neymar (right) and Kylian Mbappé (left) are the two most expensive association football transfers.

Due to fluctuations in exchange rates lists of the most expensive transfers vary depending on the currency used. Most high-priced transfers take place between clubs in the Eurozone and/or the United Kingdom. The table below is based on euro values but also shows values in pounds. Fees are often not officially announced, and figures reported by the media may not necessarily be accurate.

For football managers, the list is as follows:

Julian Nagelsmann was purchased by Bayern Munich from RB Leipzig for a world record-breaking fee of €25 Million in 2021.

Rank	Coach	From	To	Transfer fee (£ million)	Transfer fee (€ million)	Year
1	Julian Nagelsmann[212]	RB Leipzig	Bayern Munich	£21.7	€25	2021
2	Graham Potter[213][214]	Brighton & Hove Albion	Chelsea	£16	€18.57	2022
3	André Villas-Boas[215][216]	Porto	Chelsea	£13.3	€15	2011
4	Brendan Rodgers[217]	Celtic	Leicester City	£9	€10.44	2019
5	Rúben Amorim[218]	Braga	Sporting CP	£8.65	€10	2020
6	José Mourinho[219]	Internazionale	Real Madrid	£6.8	€8	2010
7	Adi Hütter[220]	Eintracht Frankfurt	Borussia Mönchengladbach	£6.5	€7.5	2021

A pre-contract is an agreement by a player and an agreeing to take his registration at a later date, and became more well known after the Bosman ruling in 1995.[221] A club may sign a pre-contract with a player while he is still with another club, by which the player agrees to move to the club at a future date, usually after his contract with his current club expires. Under the Bosman ruling, a player can sign a contract with a new club up to six months before his existing contract expires.[222]

A pre-contract agreement may be broken by the player or the club, depending on the completeness of the terms of that pre-contract and thus how close it was to being considered a valid contract under local law. In the 2014 case of Beijing Renhe FC v. Marcin Robak, the player met with the Chinese club's owner, agreed on length and compensation, put those in writing, received a signed copy of both the transfer agreement from his current club and his employment contract, and then Beijing Renhe FC retracted the agreement while saying they couldn't finalize transfer terms with his departing club.[223] FIFA's Dispute Resolution body ruled that due to the extensive provisions and signatures on the exchanged documents, a legally binding contract had been entered into, and awarded € 330,000 to Robak in compensation. On appeal, CAS upheld the award but further ruled that because of the tentative nature or omission of some common contract provisions, it was in fact a pre-contract, subject to lower damages (while still obliging all sides to resolve final contract terms in good faith, which the acquiring club had not done). In another case,[221] Ross County midfielder Richard Brittain signed a pre-contract with St Johnstone. The agreement was made in January 2013,[224][225] but Brittain changed his mind three months later,[226] citing family reasons.[227] Ross County registered the player as their own in June,[228] and, after discussions with the Scottish FA,[229] St Johnstone and Ross County came to an agreement to let Brittain stay at the club, with St Johnstone cancelling the pre-contract agreement if Ross County paid compensation.[221][230]

Although a pre-contract agreement is usually signed to secure the future registration of a player, an agreement can be reached where the club gaining the registration can pay a fee to the other club to sign the player earlier, as was the case in January 2013, when Schalke 04 midfielder Lewis Holtby, who had six months remaining on his contract, signed a pre-contract agreement with Tottenham Hotspur,[231] but at the end of the month, Tottenham paid a fee of £1.5 million to bring the transfer forward.[232]

Co-ownership is a system whereby a club will purchase 50% of the rights of a player's contract for one year and pay the wages, while also deciding which of the two clubs he will play for.[233] At the end of the year, both clubs can choose to place a bid in an auction, where the highest bid wins.[233] The co-ownership of Alessio Cerci by Torino and Fiorentina proved fruitful for Cerci and Torino,[234] who had paid €2.5 million for the first 50%,[235] and picked up the remainder of his contract after a successful year for just €3.8 million.[236]

In May 2014, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) announced it would be ending co-ownership of players to bring Serie A in line with every other league around Europe. The existing ownership deals could be for a year and at the end of it the player and the club must reach an agreement.[145][146]

Third party ownership is ownership of a player's economic rights by third-party sources, such as football agents, sports-management agencies, or other investors. The involvement of investors in the "ownership" of players is a common practice in football, particularly in Brazil and Argentina, where many clubs are insolvent or financially limited. Businessmen or other investors buy shares in the economic rights of young players and often cover the costs of their training and accommodation. In return they are entitled to a percentage of a player's future transfer fee.[237]

The transfer of Carlos Tevez to Manchester City for £47 million in 2009 was controversial for the part played by third-party owner Media Sports Investment (MSI).[67]

An alternative or an intermediary of a transfer, is a loan. This is where a player is allowed to temporarily play for a club other than the one he is currently contracted to. Loan deals may last from a few weeks to all season-long and can also last for a few seasons. Rarely, a loan of a player can be included in the transfer of another player; for example, the transfer of Dimitar Berbatov from Tottenham Hotspur to Manchester United for £31 million in 2008 included the loan of Fraizer Campbell in the opposite direction.[238]

Loans often require loanee clubs to pay the loaning club a loan fee for the privilege of obtaining the services of a player on loan. The loanee club, also usually has to pay for the entire salary owed to the player, during the duration of the loan. However, in both instances of high-profile loans of Alexis Sanchez (from Manchester United to Inter Milan in 2019[239]) and Gareth Bale (from Real Madrid to Tottenham in 2020[240]), the loaning clubs would continue to pay a sizeable percentage of the high salaries owed during the loan, in order to successfully complete the loan out of an underperforming player with high salaries, in search for more playing time.

Loans can also be used to facilitate a permanent transfer that will only occur in the following year’s summer transfer window. This is often conducted in order to spread out the balance of payments of the purchasing club over an extra year, in order to comply with UEFA Financial Fair Play regulations.

Loans can also be used in conjunction with a permanent transfer of the same player within the same transfer window; the purchasing club (who bought the contractual playing rights of a footballer) can subsequently loan the player back to the selling club or a third club. This is to ensure both the transfer of playing rights ownership (to the purchasing club) and the pursuit of obtaining more experience and matchplay elsewhere (away from the congested squad depth of the purchasing club).

A transfer may also include a buy-back clause, whereby the selling club attaches an exercisable option to buy-back the player at a predetermined financial amount (which is usually higher than the initial purchase price of the buying club), at a predetermined later date (usually two years after the completed sale).[241] If the option is not exercised by a certain date, the option expires. This is usually conducted by elite clubs who had earlier bought talented young players but would prefer the young players to improve their abilities and become more experienced. For the purchasing club, this would also guarantee the player’s services for a predetermined period (of at least 2 years).

This differs from a loan, as player ownership changes to the purchasing club along with a transfer fee being sent to the selling club, which enhances the selling club’s ability to adapt to the UEFA Financial Fair Play regulations.

Often, the buy-back clause is included with another right of first refusal clause, whereby if any third club offers to purchase a player from his current club (second club); the former club of the player (first club) which had previously included the buy-back clause, is able to match any financial offer (made by any third club) to purchase the player.

A buyout clause refers to a clause in a football player’s contract that requires a willing club which intends to purchase the playing rights of the football player under contract with his current club, to pay a stipulated amount (which is usually substantially high) as stated within the clause, to the club that still owns the contractual playing rights of the player. The buyout clause is only valid during the stipulated duration of the clause, and the current club may always choose to sell at a lower price and before the expiry of the clause, if it chooses to do so and agrees an early transfer with another club.

• Stephen Appiah: solidarity contribution was excluded from the agreed €8 million price. Fenerbahçe had an obligation to pay former clubs for additional €400,000.[244]
• Vitorino Antunes: €1.5 million x 5% x (5% x 4 seasons + 10% x 4 seasons) = €45,000 to Freamunde from Roma[245]
• Arjen Robben: €500,000 to Groningen from Bayern Munich[246]
• Robinho: €1.805 million to Santos from Manchester City[247]