Spongia officinalis

Spongia officinalis, better known as a variety of bath sponge, is a commercially used sea sponge.[2] Individuals grow in large lobes with small openings and are formed by a mesh of primary and secondary fibers.[3][2] It is light grey to black in color.[3] It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea up to 100 meters deep on rocky or sandy surfaces.[2][3][4][5][6][7]

Spongia officinalis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera
Class: Demospongiae
Order: Dictyoceratida
Family: Spongiidae
Genus: Spongia
Species:
S. officinalis
Binomial name
Spongia officinalis
Synonyms
List
  • Euspongia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1759)
  • Spongia adriatica Schmidt, 1862
  • Spongia (Spongia) officinalis Linnaeus, 1759
  • Spongia quarnerensis Schmidt, 1862

Spongia officinalis can reproduce both asexually, through budding or fragmentation, or sexually.[8] Individuals can be dioecious or sequential hermaphrodites.[8] The free-swimming larvae are lecithotrophic and grow slowly after attaching to a benthic surface.[8][9][10]

Humans use and interact with S. officinalis in a variety of ways. Harvested sponges have been used throughout history for many purposes, including washing and painting.[2] Over-harvesting and sponge disease have led to a decrease in population.[2][3][11] Sponge fishing practices have slowly changed over time as new technology has developed and sponge farming is now in use to decrease stress on wild S. officinalis populations.[3][11] Sponge farming is also recommended as a solution to reducing marine organic pollution, especially from fish farms.[3][2][12][13]

Anatomy and morphology

Spongia officinalis grows in massive, globular lobes with fine openings which are slightly elevated and have cone-shaped voids (conules).[3] Oscula can either be scattered or at the tip of the lobes.[2]

Spongia officinalis have an ectosomal skeleton composed of primary and secondary fibers. Together, they form the conulose openings.[2] The sponge also contains a choanosomal skeleton, which consists of a dense, irregular mesh of polygons formed by secondary fibers and primary fibers rise from it.[2] The primary fibers are 50 to 100 nanometers in diameter and are composed of spongin and inclusions such as sand grains and spicules. The secondary fibers are 20 to 35 nanometers in diameter and are composed of only spongin without inclusions.[2]

Spongia officinalis is light grey to black in color.[3]

Distribution and habitat

Spongia officinalis can be found in the Mediterranean Sea along the coasts of Croatia, Greece, the Aegean islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Italy, France and Spain.[2]

They are distributed in shallow water (1 to 10 meters below the surface) down to 100 meters deep.[2][3] They will grow on littoral rocky surfaces, sandy bottoms, and vertical walls in well-oxygenated water.[3]

Reproduction

Spongia officinalis can reproduce asexually via budding or fragmentation.[8]

Sexual reproduction is also common in S. officinalis.[8] Individuals can be dioecious, either male or female, or sequential hermaphrodites, meaning they can alternate between male and female.[8] Successive hermaphroditism can take place within one reproductive season.[8] Sperm is formed in spermatic cysts and is free spawned into the surrounding water.[8] Sperm is captured by females and is transported to oocytes within the sponge where fertilization takes place.[8] The occurrence of sexual reproduction peaks from October to November.[8] There is no relationship between age and reproductive ability in S. officinalis.[8]

Life cycle

After fertilization, S. officinalis embryos develop in choanosomal tissue of the female sponge.[8] Cleavage of cells begins after fertilization, around November, and is total and equal.[8] By May, a stereoblastula, or a blastula without a clear central cavity, forms.[8] From May to July, parenchymella larva, or larva which is a mass of cells enveloped in flagellated cells, develop.[8] These larvae are released from the adult from June to July.[8] Like all sponges, S. officinalis larvae are lecithotrophic, meaning they cannot feed as larva and instead rely on energy reserves provided by the mother.[10] Therefore, they only remain as a free-floating larva for a short period before settling on a benthic surface where they grow into an adult sponge.[10]

Taxonomy

Spongia officinalis was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1759.[14] The common names "bath sponge," "Fina Dalmata," and "Matapas" are usually used to refer to this species.[2]

Human uses and interactions

Uses
See also: Sponge (tool)

The use of bath sponges for bathing and other purposes originated in Greece and spread all around Europe during the Middle Ages. From there, the use of sponges spread further, with Mediterranean bath sponges currently being shipped globally.[2] S. officinalis was used by humans in many ways in the past. Aside from using the sponge for washing, some of these uses included padding in Roman soldiers helmets, as absorbent material during surgeries, as medicine to help digestive issues, and as a primitive "contraceptive sponge". Today, sponges are still used for washing and are also used for recreational purposes, like sponge painting.[2]

Fishing practices
Main article: Sponge diving

Sponge fishing in the Mediterranean has been in practice since ancient times. Aristotle even wrote of it around 350 BC.[2] Traditionally, sponge fishing was practiced by Greeks who dove underwater to collect specimens.[2] The practice remained this way until the late 19th century.[2] There was a small increase in sponge fishing at the end of the 19th century due to the invention of a new diving suit, but the suit was not very safe so sponge fishing did not grow much in popularity. Around 1910 to 1930, an underwater breathing device was created and, since then, this method of sponge fishing has continually grown in popularity.[2]

Sponges can also be collected after they wash up on beaches or they can be fished from a boat.[2]

Farming
Main article: Aquaculture of sea sponges

As S. officinalis populations declined due to over-harvest, as discussed below, interest in cultivation increased.[2][11] Towards the end of the 19th century, the first sponge farming attempts were made in the Mediterranean Sea by fixing sponge fragments onto wooden boxes and setting them into suitable habitats. Although the efforts were successful, sponge farming activity did not increase significantly until the end of the 20th century and currently, it is performed worldwide.[2]

Sponge farming not only decreases stress on S. officinalis populations, it also can be used as a sustainable method to reduce marine organic pollution because, sponges being filter feeders, they efficiently remove organic suspended particles from water.[2][3][11] For this reason, sponge cultivation in combination with fish farming has been recommended as a method to reduce organic pollution from fish farms.[2][3][12][13]

A Spongia officinalis specimen.

Conservation status

Over-harvesting and sponge disease have led to a decrease in Mediterranean S. officinalis populations.[2][3][11] People have harvested sponges in the Mediterranean since ancient times.[3] Growing demand has led to overexploitation of these sponges. Beginning in the 1980s, populations of S. officinalis in the Mediterranean have significantly declined.[3] In addition to this, a sponge disease caused by pathogenic bacteria and fungi has further reduced populations.[3] The bacteria and fungi destroy tissues and fibers of the sponges, making them weak.[3] Due to the regenerative abilities of these sponges, they are able to set aside infected tissue and recover.[3] But, when the effects of the disease are compounded by the effects of over-harvesting, populations have struggled to recover and local extinctions have occurred.[2][3]

References

Baldacconi, R., et al. "Sexual reproduction, larval development and release in Spongia officinalis L.(Porifera, Demospongiae) from the Apulian coast." Marine Biology 152.4 (2007): 969-979.

Baldacconi, Rossella, et al. "Transplantation of Spongia officinalis L.(Porifera, Demospongiae): a technical approach for restocking this endangered species." Marine Ecology 31.2 (2010): 309-317.

Cook, S.D.C., and P.R. Bergquist. “Family Spongiidae Gray.” 1867: 1051-1060. In Hooper, J. N. A. and R. W. M. Van Soest. (ed.) “Systema Porifera. A guide to the classification of sponges. 1 (Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers: New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow).” 2002.

De Laubenfels, Max Walker. "Guide to the sponges of eastern North America." (1953).

Díaz, Humberto, and Marina Bevilacqua. Esponjas en manglares del Parque Nacional Morrocoy. Fondo Editorial Acta Científico Venezolana, 1985.

Esponjas (Esponjas de baño). Pp: 111. 1980: En; Diccionario Monográfico del Reino Animal. Biblograf, S.A. España.

Gaino, Elda, et al. "Mortality of commercial sponges: incidence in two Mediterranean areas." Italian Journal of Zoology 59.1 (1992): 79-85.

Gifford, Scott, et al. "Aquatic zooremediation: deploying animals to remediate contaminated aquatic environments." TRENDS in Biotechnology 25.2 (2007): 60-65.

Linné, Carl von. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. 1, pt. 7. Lugduni: Apud JB Delamolliere, 1789.

Pronzato, Roberto, and Renata Manconi. "Mediterranean commercial sponges: over 5000 years of natural history and cultural heritage." Marine Ecology 29.2 (2008): 146-166.

Pronzato, Roberto. "Sponge‐fishing, disease and farming in the Mediterranean Sea." Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 9.5 (1999): 485-493.

Riesgo, Ana, et al. "Some like it fat: comparative ultrastructure of the embryo in two Demosponges of the Genus Mycale (Order Poecilosclerida) from Antarctica and the Caribbean." PLOS ONE 10.3 (2015).

Rützler, Klaus, Rob WM van Soest, and Carla Piantoni. "Sponges (Porifera) of the Gulf of Mexico." Gulf of Mexico Origins, Waters, and Biota 1 (2009): 285-313.

Stabili, Loredana, et al. "Filtering activity of Spongia officinalis var. adriatica (Schmidt)(Porifera, Demospongiae) on bacterioplankton: implications for bioremediation of polluted seawater." Water research 40.16 (2006): 3083-3090.

  1. Linnaeus, C. 1759: Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. - pp. [1-4], 825-1384. Holmiæ. (L. Salvii).
  2. Pronzato, Roberto; Manconi, Renata (2008). "Mediterranean commercial sponges: over 5000 years of natural history and cultural heritage". Marine Ecology. 29 (2): 146–166. Bibcode:2008MarEc..29..146P. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2008.00235.x.
  3. Pronzato, Roberto (1999). <485::aid-aqc362>3.0.co;2-n "Sponge-fishing, disease and farming in the Mediterranean Sea". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 9 (5): 485–493. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0755(199909/10)9:5<485::aid-aqc362>3.0.co;2-n. ISSN 1052-7613.
  4. Laubenfels, M.W. de. 1953: A guide to the sponges of Eastern North America. University of Miami Press. 32p.
  5. Díaz, Humberto; Bevilcqua, Marina; Bone, David (1985). Esponjas en manglares del Parque Nacional Morrocoy (in Spanish). Fondo Editorial Acta Científica Venezolana. p. 64. OL 2655789M.
  6. Cook, S.D.C., & Bergquist, P.R. 2002: Family Spongiidae Gray, 1867. Pp. 1051-1060. In Hooper, J. N. A. & Van Soest, R. W. M. (ed.) Systema Porifera. A guide to the classification of sponges. 1 (Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers: New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow).
  7. Rützler, K., R. W. M. van Soest. & C. Piantoni. 2009: Sponges (Porifera) of the Gulf of Mexico, Pp. 285–313 in Felder, D.L. and D.K. Camp (eds.), Gulf of Mexico–Origins, Waters, and Biota. Biodiversity. Texas A&M Press, College Station, Texas.
  8. Baldacconi, R.; Nonnis-Marzano, C.; Gaino, E.; Corriero, G. (2007-09-01). "Sexual reproduction, larval development and release in Spongia officinalis L. (Porifera, Demospongiae) from the Apulian coast". Marine Biology. 152 (4): 969–979. doi:10.1007/s00227-007-0747-4. ISSN 1432-1793. S2CID 54594445.
  9. "Esponjas (esponjas de baño)". Diccionario Monográfico del Reino Animal (in Spanish) (1a ed.). Barcelona: Bibliograf. 1980. p. 111. ISBN 84-71533-85-5.
  10. Riesgo, Ana; Taboada, Sergio; Sánchez-Vila, Laura; Solà, Joan; Bertran, Andrea; Avila, Conxita (2015-03-18). "Some Like It Fat: Comparative Ultrastructure of the Embryo in Two Demosponges of the Genus Mycale (Order Poecilosclerida) from Antarctica and the Caribbean". PLOS ONE. 10 (3): e0118805. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1018805R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118805. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4365022. PMID 25785444.
  11. Baldacconi, Rossella; Cardone, Frine; Longo, Caterina; Mercurio, Maria; Marzano, Carlotta Nonnis; Gaino, Elda; Corriero, Giuseppe (2010). "Transplantation of Spongia officinalis L. (Porifera, Demospongiae): a technical approach for restocking this endangered species". Marine Ecology. 31 (2): 309–317. Bibcode:2010MarEc..31..309B. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2009.00299.x.
  12. Stabili, Loredana; Licciano, Margherita; Giangrande, Adriana; Longo, Caterina; Mercurio, Maria; Marzano, Carlotta Nonnis; Corriero, Giuseppe (2006-09-01). "Filtering activity of Spongia officinalis var. adriatica (Schmidt) (Porifera, Demospongiae) on bacterioplankton: Implications for bioremediation of polluted seawater". Water Research. 40 (16): 3083–3090. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.06.012. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 16884759.
  13. Gifford, Scott; Dunstan, R. Hugh; O’Connor, Wayne; Koller, Claudia E.; MacFarlane, Geoff R. (2007-02-01). "Aquatic zooremediation: deploying animals to remediate contaminated aquatic environments". Trends in Biotechnology. 25 (2): 60–65. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.12.002. ISSN 0167-7799. PMID 17173992.
  14. Linné, Carl von (1789). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. 1, pt. 7 (in Latin) (13th ed.). Lugduni : Apud J. B. Delamolliere.
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