Zhongshan (state)

The state of Zhao surrounded Zhongshan almost entirely, with only Zhongshan's northeastern border being outside of Zhao. For this reason, they were considered to be a "disease in the heart and belly" by the Zhao kings.[3] From 307 BC on, Zhao attacked Zhongshan almost every year, until, in 301, the king of Zhongshan was forced to take refuge in Qi. During this time Qi declared war on and invaded Chu; seeing that Qi was occupied with a war of their own, Zhao pushed deep into Zhongshan, and fully conquered them.[15]

Zhongshan used a currency called chengbo, which took the form of a 15 gram bronze knife shaped coin. It is known that these coins were made in at least Lingshou.[17]

The level of trade, and the relationship, Zhongshan had with other states can be roughly ascertained from the amount of a currency was found in the ruins of Lingshou: the yan knife coins from Yan were plentiful, with some 374 being found, whereas the gandan, baihua, and lin coins of Zhao are rare, with only 100 of them, combined, found. This reflects the hostile relations Zhao had with Zhongshan, and the good relations Yan had with Zhongshan. Indeed, even the similarities of the yan and chengbo knife coins seems to suggest their friendly relationship, as they were of similar size and of equal weight, with both weighing fifteen grams, meaning that they would be interchangeable.[8]

A map of one of the tombs

The tombs of the two kings, Cheng and Cuo, were the first find of any Zhongshan architecture, and are considered the richest find of any Chinese state of the 4th century BC.[18] They are the largest of any tombs of the Zhongshan to date. Both of their main chambers had been looted, however their storage chambers were still intact, and contained a large number of artifacts.[20] Many of these ritual vessels found in these tombs were from surrounding warring states, with a few coming from the northern nomads, but the luxury goods were largely of the Zhongshan style. This split, between archeological evidence supporting the thesis that they were a Chinese people (Huaxia), and textual sources claiming them as a non-Chinese people, has caused two fields of thought; one side seeing the Zhongshan as a sinicized minority, an outside group that has been heavily influenced by Chinese culture, and the other seeing them as a Chinese people that were influenced by non-Chinese, nomadic peoples.[21]

The capital city, Lingshou contained many ruins, including the foundations of palaces, workshops for bronze and ceramic, marketplaces, and cemeteries.[22] The cemeteries around Lingshou contain some 125 tombs, and dozens more are scattered throughout the country.[23] The city is believed to have been founded in 380, and to have remained the capital until 296, when Zhongshan was conquered. The city is strategically placed, surrounded on its west, north and south sides by the Taihang Mountains, with its east side facing plains. Like many other capitals of the time, the city was built at the confluence of two rivers. The city was about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) wide east to west, and 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) wide north to south. Of the cities walls, only the earthen foundation remains, but it is known that they ranged between being 18 metres (59 ft) and 34 metres (112 ft) wide. Two gates can be seen, one on the west side and the other on the north side.[19] Four pounded-earth terraces were attached to the walls, some near the gates.[24] A small hill, called Huangshan, is inside the walls, in the north section of the city. The Shui Jing Zhu says that this hill is what gives the Zhongshan, meaning "central mountain", their name. The hill is believed to have been used as a watchtower. For further fortification, a small city was built 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) to the east. This small city/fort was 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) by 1,050 metres (3,440 ft). The remains of the pounded earth and buildings of the centre-western part still stand. This city was used to defend the only angle from which to attack Lingshou, which was clearly placed based upon military considerations, rather than economic or political.[25]

The official that was in charge of managing the tile-making workers in pottery workshops was called a Sikou. The Zhouli describes Sikou to mean an officer in charge of penal codes and convicts, suggesting that Zhongshan's tile production was reliant on, at least in part, convict labor.[26]

The ideology of Zhongshan was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals, but it is believed that these ideals were used by the King to legitimize his rule, and his foreign policy, rather than being truly believed by the ruling class.[27] This can be seen in their use of Confucian ideology regarding the ruler being heavenly mandated, in order to attack Yan, and seize cities and materials.[28]

A key religious area, Guocun, was located some 4 kilometers southwest of Lingshou, and contained 142 sacrificial pits. These pits were roughly 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 0.7 metres (2 ft 4 in) in area, and between 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) and 12 metres (39 ft) deep. In each of these pits, an animal, usually sheep, goats, or cattle, was found with its legs tied together, and was buried with a jade item, usually a pendant or bi disk.[8] These pits, and their contents, are very similar to the sacrificial pits of Jin, where they are believed to have been used ceremonially, to form "oaths of alliances" (mengshi). The connection of the two has been seen as evidence of a strong Jin cultural influence upon the elites of Zhongshan.[29]

The characters and style of Zhongshan Chinese is closest to the Chinese of the Qi, but was also influenced by the more southern Chinese states. Their style of calligraphy were very slender and graceful, while also being very taut. It is believed that this style of calligraphy was chosen by King Cuo himself, to emphasize his power.[30]

• Zhan Guo Ce (戰國策)[15]
• Lüshi Chunqiu (呂氏春秋)[15]
• Shiji (太史公書)[1]