Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world

Neusu inscription found in Banda Aceh, now kept at Aceh Museum

A slightly later Tamil language inscription has recently been found at Neusu Aceh, Banda Aceh. The date of the inscription is illegible, but it has been dated palaeographically to about the 12th century, The entire front of the stone is illegible, aside from the isolated word mandapam, presumably relating to a temple foundation or endowment. A provisional translation of the legible portion of the back reads:

"[....] that [we] would not hold (kaikkollakadavadalla); for this decision. [If any violation comes or situation arises against it (?)...those] who put the [royal] emblem (ilachchinal, Sanskrit lancana) will come to take and go (seize?) [....] that [we] would not get or collect (kolludal) interest [in kind] (polisai) [...even] afterwards our people (makkal) would do in accordance with this inscription (ikkalvettuku kokka[okka]). Let there be prosperity."

This provisional reading suggests that the inscription dealt with trading regulations covering losses of goods, the waiving of collection of interest, and perhaps of royal fees. The legible portion of the text does not bear the name of any merchant association, but a reference to "our people" (makkal) may indicate that an association was involved: several inscriptions of this period in southern India connect merchant associations — particularly the Ainnurruvar — with the construction of mandapa or other additions to both Hindu and Buddhist foundations.[5]

In ancient Kedah there is an important and unmistakably Hindu settlement which has been known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. Quaritch Wales. Dr. Wales investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results attained show that this site was in continuous occupation by people who came under strong South Indian influences, Buddhist and Hindu, for centuries.[6]

An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula[nb 1] in South Indian characters of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century AD, possibly earlier.[6]

An inscription in the Tamil language, the Lobu Tua Inscription dated 1088 AD, has been found on the western coast of Sumatra island at Lobu Tua, North Sumatra province, Indonesia. It was erected by a Tamil merchant guild, the Ayyavole 500 (“the 500 of the thousand directions”) which enjoyed the patronage of the Chola rulers. The inscription mentions the guild as “having met at the velapuram in Varocu”.[7] “Varocu” is Barus, an ancient port located not far from Lobu Tua, which had played a major role in the camphor and benzoin trade since the 9th century. These valuable products were in high demand in China, India and the Middle East and came from the forests in the northern Sumatra hinterland. From there, they were brought to Barus and exported. Tamil were among the foreign merchants who would come to Barus and buy the camphor and benzoin from local traders.

In 1017 and 1025, the Chola kings had sent fleets to raid ports controlled by Sriwijaya in the Malacca Straits. After these successful attacks, the Chola seem to have been in a position to intervene in the region for the rest of the 11th century. This allowed for an increased presence of Tamil merchant guilds in Sumatra.[8]

In the ancient city of Tanjore (Thanjavur — ancient name) in Tamil Nadu are inscriptions dating from 1030. which contain a list of the ports in the Malacca Strait raided by a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I. A large stone makara found in Jambi province in Sumatra, dated 1064 AD, bears testimony to the reemergence of a significant power in Jambi, with a strong link to Java, in the 11th century. [9] The following are the places that Rajendran claims to have raided:[10][11]^{: 77–78, 170}

• Sriwijaya (Palembang)
• Pannai (Pannai kingdom)
• Malaiyur (the Malayu of the 7th century, i.e. Jambi) (referring to the ancient Melayu Kingdom. Known as Jambi today.)
• Mayirudingan (the Je-lo-ting of the Chinese on the Malay Peninsula)
• Ilangasokam (Langkasuka)
• Mapappalam (Papphaal, placed by the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa on the coast of Pegu in Burma)
• Mevilimbangam (unknown)
• Valaippanduru (unknown)
• Talaittakkolam (Takkola of Ptolemy and the Milindapandha, On the isthmus of Kra)
• Madamalingam (Tambralinga, Chinese Tan-ma-ling, of which the center was at Ligor in Southern Thailand), or the Kra Isthmus
• Ilamuridesam (Lamuri of the Arabs, Lambri of Marco Polo at northern Sumatra)
• Manakkavaram (Nicobar islands)
• Kadaram (Kedah)

• Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world
• Tamil bell