Tell es-Sakan

The Bronze Age port dates to the end of the 4th millennium BCE, and was contemporary with En Besor, an Egyptian First Dynasty staging post along the "Ways of Horus" trade route in the Northern Negev. En Besor was much smaller, but it was an important source for fresh water to supply the caravans. There were also some other smaller Egyptian settlements in this area.[6]

The architectural remains, as well as almost all of the findings from Area A, are typical of the Nile Valley around 3200-3000 BCE.[3]

The only other Egyptian settlement in this area that was older than es-Sakan was Taur Ikhbeineh.[7] The occupation there started in 3500 BC and ended in 3200 BC, while es-Sakan was still flourishing. Taur Ikhbeineh is located nearby, and it was active from the period Naqada IIb-c, and until the period Naqada IIIa, according to the Egyptian chronology.

At Tell es-Sakan, truly exceptional was the discovery of the fortifications, represented by two successively built, powerful mud brick walls.[3] This was interpreted as proof for the importance of the settlement, which may have been the administrative centre of the colonial domain established by the Egyptians in southwestern Palestine[3] during the Early Dynastic Period.[6] A remarkable fact is that Tell es-Sakan was at the time of its excavation the oldest fortified site known in both Egypt and Palestine.[3]

Other finds of Egyptian or "Egyptianising" pottery from this early period have also been found at the sites of Tel Erani, Arad, Tell el-Khuweilifeh/Tel Halif, Tel Yarmuth, and Tel Lod. Nevertheless, the quantity of such pottery is rather small compared to the amount of the Levantine Early Bronze Age pottery at these sites.

This phase of the occupation of the site lasted until about 3000 BC (the very end of EBI and the beginning of EBII).[8][9]

There are indications that this part of the occupation at the site ended at the beginning of the First Dynasty of Egypt, perhaps under the reign of one of the successors of Narmer, such as Hor-Aha or Den.[10]

The Egyptian colonial domain in the region eventually disappeared and the site was abandoned for several centuries.[3]

In the Early Bronze Age III (EBIII, c. 2650-2300) was the site reoccupied, when the local population created a new, fortified city.[3] Five levels of occupation have been found lasting about 300 years. There are indications that the reoccupation of the site took place at the beginning of the Egyptian Fourth Dynasty.[11] The closest parallels at that time in material culture were with the Canaanite settlement of Tel Yarmuth.

A strong mud brick rampart consisting of a wall strengthened by a glacis surrounded an urban settlement described by researchers as having strong local particularities, while also showing close links with Palestinian sites located further inland.[3] The walls at that time were 8 metres thick and built of sun-dried mud bricks.

This Canaanite settlement is dated solely to the Early Bronze period, when the major sites of southwestern Canaan reached their greatest prosperity. Then the settlement was finally abandoned around 2400-2350 BCE.[8]

The lifestyles and economic activity at the site changed over the centuries. While hunting was widely practised early on, later, agriculture and animal husbandry became predominant.

Remains of sheep, goat and cattle were discovered, as well as fish bones and shells. Wheat, barley, vegetables, olives, and grapes were cultivated.[12]

Along with all other urban sites in Palestine, Tell es-Sakan was abandoned during what is known as the Intermediate Bronze Age, and in this concrete case also during part of the following Middle Bronze Age, with the region returning for several centuries to nomadic pastoralism.[3] This nomadic population only settled down again around 1800 BCE, by then though choosing a site 500 metres to the south, known in Arabic as Tell el-Ajjul.[3] The new city reached a great degree of prosperity in the second millennium.[3] Tell el-Ajjul and another nearby site, al-Mughraqa, saw occupation during the Middle and Late Bronze Age.

Another site further south, at Deir al-Balah, was occupied during the 14th–12th centuries BCE, the time of the Egyptian New Kingdom (Late Bronze Age).[13]